Convert to organic farming
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Overall effectiveness category Evidence not assessed
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Number of studies: 13
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Supporting evidence from individual studies
A replicated, paired, site comparison study in 2003–2004 on 24 arable farms in Scania, Sweden (Rundlof & Smith 2006) found that organic farms had a higher abundance and species richness of butterflies and burnet moths than conventional farms in intensively farmed but not more diverse landscapes. In intensively farmed landscapes, both the abundance (1.7 individuals/50 m) and species richness (0.9 species/50 m) of butterflies and burnet moths on organic farms were higher than on conventional farms (abundance: 0.4 individuals/50 m; richness: 0.3 species/50 m). However, in more diverse landscapes, the abundance (4.5 individuals/50 m) and species richness (1.6 species/50 m) of butterflies and burnet moths on organic farms were not significantly different from conventional farms (abundance: 3.6 individuals/50 m; richness: 1.4 species/50 m). Twelve arable farms with >50% of land under EU-subsidized organic management in 2002 and 12 conventional farms of similar size, crop type and landscape features, were selected. Farm pairs were 3–8 km apart. Six pairs of farms were in diverse landscapes (15% arable land, 19% pasture, small fields), and six pairs were in intensively farmed landscapes (70% arable land, 3% pasture, large fields). From June–August 2003 and May–August 2004, butterflies and burnet moths were surveyed 5–6 times/year along 400–750 m routes along cereal field boundaries. Individuals occurring 5 m into the crop and in adjacent 2-m uncultivated margins were counted.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired sites, site comparison study in 1994–1996 in 34 arable farms in southern England, UK (Feber et al 1997) found that organic farms had a higher abundance of butterflies than conventional farms, but higher species richness in only the first of three study years. In all years there were more butterflies on organic farms (average: 24–34 individuals/km) than conventional farms (average: 17–21 individuals/km). See paper for average numbers of individual species. In 1994, there was higher species richness on organic (average: 10–16 species/km) than conventional farms (average: 8–12 species/km), but there was no difference between the two systems in 1995–1996 (1995 average species/km: organic = 12–16, conventional = 8–14; 1996 average species/km: organic = 11–16, conventional = 9–15). Pairs of neighbouring organic and conventional farms were surveyed (eight pairs in 1994, ten in 1995 and five in 1996, of which three were surveyed every year). From April–September 1994–1996, butterflies were surveyed every two weeks on transects of differing lengths, each of which included areas of both organic and conventional farms.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired, site comparison study in 2004–2005 in 16 sites of arable farmland in Skåne, Sweden (Rundlöf et al 2008) found that butterfly and burnet moth species richness was higher in organic fields than in conventionally farmed fields, and in either type of field within a landscape with a high proportion of organic fields (organic landscape), whereas butterfly abundance was higher in organic fields than in conventionally farmed fields only when fields were situated within a landscape with a high proportion of conventionally farmed fields (conventional landscape). More species of butterfly were recorded in organic (average: 8) than conventionally farmed fields (average: 7). Both organic and conventionally farmed fields within organic landscapes had more butterfly species (average: 8) than the same type of field in conventional landscapes (average: 7). In conventional landscapes there were more individuals in organic fields (95) than conventionally farmed fields (46), but in organic landscapes the difference in number of individuals between organic (68) and conventionally farmed fields (56) was not statistically significant. Eight pairs of circles of land with a 1 km radius were selected (each termed a “landscape”), where one of the pair contained a high proportion of land under the Swedish agri-environment scheme for organic farming (organic landscape: 31–97% organically farmed fields) and the other had a low proportion of organic farming (conventional landscape: 2–16%). Landscapes in a pair were 2.5–7.5 km apart, with similar field sizes, crop compositions, and percentages of land in ley, pasture and arable. In each landscape, two pairs of two adjacent cereal fields were chosen. In one pair both fields matched the landscape farming practice (organic or conventional), in the other pair one field was organically farmed and one was conventionally farmed. In each field, a 250 m transect was walked five times in June–August 2004 and six times in May–August 2005 to count butterflies Rhopalocera and burnet moths Zygaenidae.
Study and other actions testedA before-and-after study in 1994–2006 on a mixed farm in Oxfordshire, UK (Taylor & Morecroft 2009) found that following adoption of the Environmentally Sensitive Areas scheme, including stopping the application of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, the abundance and species richness of large moths and some species of butterfly increased. After Environmentally Sensitive Area management began, the total abundance (1,000–1,450 individuals) and species richness of large moth species was higher than before (800–1,250 individuals, richness data not presented). One of the five most abundant moth species (lunar underwing Omphaloscelis lunosa) and five of 23 butterfly species (meadow brown Maniola jurtina, brown argus Aricia agestis, common blue Polyommatus icarus, small copper Lycaena phlaeas and red admiral Vanessa atalanta) increased in abundance after the change in management. However, two butterfly species became less abundant (green-veined white Pieris napi and large white Pieris brassicae, data presented as model results). Overall butterfly abundance and species richness increased over the entire monitoring period, but the increase did not just happen after the management change. In 2002, the farm entered the Environmentally Sensitive Areas agri-environment scheme, and fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides were no longer used. Additionally, the proportion of grassland increased, and the total number of livestock dropped from 180 cows and 1,000 sheep to 120 cows and 850 sheep. Butterflies were monitored weekly from April–September on a fixed 3.6 km transect divided into 13 sections. Moths were monitored nightly from dusk to dawn using a light trap in a fixed position in the middle of the farm.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired sites, site comparison study in 2007–2008 in 16 sites of arable farmland in England, UK (Hodgson et al 2010) found that butterfly abundance, but not species richness, was higher on organic farms than conventional farms and on either farm type within landscapes with relatively high proportions of organic farming. There was higher abundance of butterflies on organic than on conventional farms and on either type of farm within a wider landscape which had a relatively high proportion of organic farming (data presented as model results). However, there was no effect of organic farming at the farm or landscape scale on species richness (data presented as model results). Eight pairs of 10 km2 landscapes were selected, matched in environmental conditions, where one of the pair contained a high proportion of organic farming (average: 17.2%) and the other had a low proportion of organic farming (average: 1.4%). Within each landscape one organic farm and one conventional farm was selected. Fifteen-minute walking butterfly transects were conducted along the centre and margins of six fields (three arable and three pasture) within each farm. In June–August 2008, seventy-five percent of farms were surveyed twice and 25% once. Surveys were also conducted in some arable fields only in June–August 2007 (number of visits not provided).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2001 on 16 arable farms in Ontario, Canada (Boutin et al. 2011) found that organic farms had a similar abundance and species richness of macro-moths to conventionally managed farms. On organic farms, the total abundance (51–418 individuals/trap) and species richness (8–26 species/trap) of moths were not significantly different to on conventional farms (abundance: 40–359 individuals/trap; richness: 9–21 species/trap). However, more species of the family Notodontidae were found in organic than conventional farms (data not presented). Of 126 species collected only once, 91 were found on organic farms compared to 35 on conventional farms (statistical significance not assessed). See paper for species results. Eight organic farms had no chemical inputs for at least three years. Eight conventional farms had chemical fertilizers and herbicides applied. From June–September 2001, macro-moths were sampled on six nights/site. Each night, one fluorescent UV black-light funnel trap was set halfway along a hedge, and one was set ~50 m away in the middle of the adjacent crop field. Two organic and two conventional farms were sampled each night, and all sites were sampled within five nights every two weeks.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2009 in 60 arable farms in Uppland and Scania, Sweden (Jonason et al 2011, same experimental set up as Jonason et al 2012) found that butterfly abundance and species richness was higher on organic than conventionally-managed farms, and butterfly abundance, but not richness, increased with the time since a farm had been converted to organic farming. Butterfly abundance was 60% higher on organic (average: 68 individuals) than conventional farms (42 individuals). Species richness was 23% higher on organic (average: 10 species) than conventional farms (8 species). Butterfly abundance increased steadily with years since land was converted from conventionally-managed to organic farming, but time since conversion to organic did not affect species richness (data presented as statistical results). In June–August 2009, butterfly surveys were carried out in 40 organic and 20 conventionally-managed farms. Organic farms varied in time since conversion from conventional management (1–25 years). On each farm, three 250 m transects were completed 5–6 times - one in an uncultivated margin of a cereal field, and two within the field at 50 m and 200 m from the margin transect. Butterflies and burnet moths Zygaenidae were identified to species.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2009 on 60 arable farms in Uppland and Scania, Sweden (Jonason et al. 2012) found that organic farms had a higher abundance and species richness of butterflies and day-flying moths than conventional farms. Data were not presented. Forty organic and 20 conventional farms (>2 km apart) were selected. Organic farms had been under organic management for 1–25 years. From June–August 2009, butterflies and burnet moths (Zygaenidae) were surveyed 5–6 times on three transects/farm. One 250-m transect was located along an uncropped margin of a cereal field, and two 50-m transects ran perpendicular to the margin into the field.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2010 in 18 arable farms in south-east Sweden (Jonason et al. 2013) found that recently established organic farms had a higher abundance and species richness of moths than older organic farms or conventional farms. On farms which had been managed organically for up to six years, the abundance (357 individuals) and species richness (26 species) of moths was higher than on farms which had been managed organically for over 15 years (abundance: 48 individuals; richness: 11 species) and on conventionally managed farms (abundance: 50 individuals; richness: 12 species). Twelve species of moth were associated with new organic farms (see paper for details), but no species were associated with old organic or conventional farms. Six farms had been in organic management for ≤6 years, six had been in organic management for 15–23 years, and six were still managed conventionally. In early August 2010, moths were sampled for four consecutive days using three bait traps/farm. Traps were placed 50 m apart along one 1.5–3-m-wide, >300-m-long, uncropped field margin/farm, 1.7 m above ground, and baited with sugar saturated red wine.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2009–2011 in 133 mixed farms in the Central Plateau, Switzerland (Stoeckli et al. 2017) found that organic farms had a similar abundance and species richness of butterflies to conventional farms. On organically managed farms, both the abundance and species richness of butterflies was similar to conventionally managed farms (data presented as model results). Of 133 farms (17–34 ha, 13–91% arable crops), 42 were managed organically, and 91 were managed conventionally. All farms contained “Ecological Compensation Areas” under agri-environment schemes. From May–September 2009–2011, butterflies were surveyed six times on 10–38 transects/farm, totalling 2,500 m/farm. Each transect ran diagonally through a single crop or habitat type, with all available crops and habitats represented. All visits to a farm were completed in a single year, and the species richness was summed across all visits. Total abundance of butterflies was calculated from the number recorded in each habitat, and the availability of each habitat across the farm.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2015 on seven arable farms in Germany (Sybertz et al. 2017) found that field margins next to organically managed fields had more butterfly species than field margins next to conventionally managed fields. On margins next to organically managed fields, there were more butterfly species than on margins next to conventionally managed fields (data presented as model results). Overall, 143–542 butterflies of 8–25 species were recorded on each organic farm, and 217–446 butterflies of 10–16 species were recorded on each conventional farm (statistical significance not assessed). Five farms (80–700 ha) were managed organically, and two farms (58–260 ha) were managed conventionally. From June–August 2015, butterflies were surveyed six times along 10 permanent, unsprayed and uncropped arable field margins (≥1 m wide, 50–250 m long) on each farm.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2015–2017 on 19 mixed farms in Scania, Sweden (Carrie et al. 2018) found that organic farms had more consistent butterfly species richness across the farm than conventional farms. Across three field types, butterfly species richness was more consistent on organic than on conventional farms (data presented as model results). However, the consistency of butterfly species richness within a single field type throughout the summer, and between years, was similar on organic and conventional farms. On each of 10 organic and nine conventional farms, three fields were surveyed: a cereal field, a grass ley (rotational, sown, improved grassland), and a semi-natural grassland. From May–August 2015–2017, butterflies were surveyed five times (two weeks apart) along two 100-m transects/field.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired, site comparison study in 2017 in four farms in Hualien County, Taiwan (Yen et al. 2018) found that organic farms had a similar abundance and species richness of butterflies to conventional farms. On organic farms, the abundance (287 individuals/ha) and species richness (11 species/farm) of butterflies was not significantly different from that on conventional farms (abundance: 191 individuals/ha; richness: 9 species/farm). Within a National Park, 39 ha of farmland remained in production and farmers were encouraged to convert to organic farming. In each of two areas, one organic and one conventional farm were selected (number of years since conversion to organic not given). Farms were 250–3,200 m apart. From May–September 2017, butterflies were surveyed once/month along 150-m transects at each farm (number not specified).
Study and other actions tested
Where has this evidence come from?
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This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:
Butterfly and Moth ConservationRelated Actions
| Actions | Effectiveness | Studies | Category | |
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Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 5 |
Synopsis Link |
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Use fencing to reduce pesticide and nutrient run-off into margins, waterways and ponds Action Link |
No evidence found (no assessment) | 0 |
Synopsis Link |
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Provide buffer strips to reduce pesticide and nutrient run-off into margins, waterways and ponds Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 1 |
Synopsis Link |
Butterfly and Moth Conservation - Published 2023
Butterfly and Moth Synopsis
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