Use holding pens at release site prior to release of captive-bred mammals

How is the evidence assessed?
  • Effectiveness
    70%
  • Certainty
    65%
  • Harms
    10%

Study locations

Key messages

COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)

POPULATION RESPONSE (30 STUDIES)

  • Abundance (2 studies): A study in Saudi Arabia found that a population of captive-bred Arabian sand gazelles kept in holding pens prior to release nearly doubled in size over four years. A before-and-after study in China found that following release of captive-bred animals from a pre-release enclosure into the semi-wild (free-roaming in summer, enclosed in winter and provided with food), Przewalski’s horses increased in number.
  • Reproductive success (10 studies): Eight studies (one replicated) and one review in the UK, Saudi Arabia, the USA, Israel and Australia found that following the use of holding pens prior to release (and in some cases provision of supplementary food), captive-bred Eurasian otters, Arabian sand gazelles, eastern-barred bandicoots, some swift foxes, some red wolves and over 33% of Persian fallow deer reproduced, Arabian gazelles started breeding in the first year and the reproductive success of female Asiatic wild ass increased over 10 years. A study in Australia found that after being kept in a holding pen, all four mammal populations released into an invasive-species-free fenced enclosure reproduced.
  • Survival (23 studies): One of three studies (two controlled, one replicated) in the UK, Canada and Australia found that using holding pens prior to release of captive-bred (and some translocated) animals resulted in greater post-release survival for water voles compared to animals released directly into the wild. The other two studies found similar survival rates for eastern barred bandicoots and swift foxes compared to animals released directly into the wild. A replicated study in the USA found that captive-bred Allegheny woodrats kept in holding pens prior to release, had higher early survival rates than those not kept in holding pens, but overall survival rates tended to be lower than wild resident woodrats. Three studies in South Africa, USA and Argentina found that released captive-bred (and some translocated) African wild dogs, riparian brush rabbits and guanacos that spent longer in, and in one case in larger, holding pens had a higher survival rate. Three studies (one controlled) in Australia and the USA found that captive-bred animals kept in holding pens prior to release had similar (bridled nailtail wallabies) or lower (black-footed ferret kits) annual survival rate after release to that of wild-born translocated animals and lower (black-footed ferrets) survival rates than resident animals. Ten studies (including one controlled, before-and-after study) and one review in Saudi Arabia, the USA, Argentina, China, Israel, Australia and Germany found that following the use of holding pens prior to release of captive-bred animals (or in some cases captive-reared/rehabilitated, or with provision of supplementary food), four of four mammal populations, 19% of red wolves, Asiatic wild ass, Persian fallow deer, most Arabian sand gazelles, most swift foxes, eastern-barred bandicoots and European mink survived at least 1-10 years, over half of giant anteaters, hare-wallabies and Père David’s deer survived for at least 1.5-6 months. Three studies in Namibia, the USA and Australia found that that following the use of holding pens prior to release of captive-bred or reared animals (some provided with nest boxes and/or supplementary food), red-tailed phascogales, most Mexican wolves and African wild dogs survived less than 6-12 months.
  • Condition (4 studies): A randomized, controlled study in Australia found that eastern barred bandicoots released after time in holding pens lost a similar proportion of body weight and recovered to a similar weight compared to bandicoots released directly. A controlled study in the UK found that common dormice lost weight after being put into holding pens whereas wild translocated dormice gained weight. A controlled, before-and-after study in Australia found that captive-bred rufous hare-wallabies placed in holding pens prior to release lost body condition in holding pens. A before-and-after study in Australia found that captive-bred brush-tailed rock-wallabies placed in a holding pen prior to release maintained good health.

BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY)

  • Behaviour change (1 study): A controlled study in Argentina found that after being kept in holding pens and provided with supplementary food, released captive-bred giant anteaters were less nocturnal in their activity patterns than released wild-born rehabilitated individuals.

About key messages

Key messages provide a descriptive index to studies we have found that test this intervention.

Studies are not directly comparable or of equal value. When making decisions based on this evidence, you should consider factors such as study size, study design, reported metrics and relevance of the study to your situation, rather than simply counting the number of studies that support a particular interpretation.

Supporting evidence from individual studies

  1. A replicated study in summer 1983–1984 at a riparian site in East Anglia, UK (Wayre 1985) found that captive-bred European otters Lutra lutra kept in a pre-release pen and provided supplementary food after release bred successfully. Footprints of at least one otter cub were found in the year after release. Otters settled near the release site, but ranged along 31.5 km of river over the first 100 days after release. In July 1983, three 18-month-old captive-bred otters (one male, two female) were released. Before release, they were held together in a pen at the release site, for an unspecified period of time. After release, supplementary food was provided in the pens for 12 days. The male otter was radio-tracked for 50 nights after release. Local bridges were monitored for 100 days after release for signs of otter faeces.

    Study and other actions tested
  2. A study in 1983–1985 along river on the Norfolk-Suffolk border, UK (Jefferies et al. 1986) found that following the use of holding pens at release sites and short-term provision of supplementary food, released captive-bred Eurasian otters Lutra lutra stayed in their release area for at least two years and bred. Otters survived in the release area at least 28 months after release. Breeding was confirmed the summer after release and suspected again the following summer. Otters held in pens before release displayed similar activity periods, range sizes, and behaviours to those seen in wild otter populations. One male and two female otters (captive-bred and unrelated) were kept in a large pen with a pool where they had limited contact with humans from 10 to 18 months of age. In June 1983, at 18 months, they were moved to a 9 × 15-m pre-release pen, 10 m from a river bank, on a river island. After 20 days, the pen door was fixed open. Food was placed in the pen daily for 12 days after release. The male was radio-tracked from 5 July to 24 August 1983. Otter signs (especially spraints) were then monitored until 1985.

    Study and other actions tested
  3. A controlled study in 1992 in a woodland reserve in Somerset, UK (Bright & Morris 1994) found that captive-bred common dormice Muscardinus avellanarius lost weight after release into holding pens whereas wild-caught translocated dormice gained weight. The body mass of captive-bred common dormice decreased after release into holding pens by 0.23 g/day, whereas that of translocated wild-caught dormice increased by 0.12 g/day. After release from the holding pens, both captive-bred and wild-caught translocated dormice lost a small amount of weight (see original paper for details). The study was conducted along a 9-ha strip of woodland and scrub between 24 August and 30 September 1992. Eight captive-bred and six wild-caught dormice were held in a pre-release pen for eight nights, and then released into the wild. The pre-release pen (0.45 m wide, 0.5 m deep and 0.9 m high) was constructed from 1-cm2 weldmesh and had food and water. Dormice were released in the same groups as they were found in nestboxes or in which they had been living in captivity. All individuals were weighed 10–14 days after release.

    Study and other actions tested
  4. A replicated, controlled study in 1983–1993 in three grassland sites in Alberta, Canada (Carbyn et al. 1994) found that captive-bred and translocated swift foxes Vulpes velox released after time in holding pens had similar survival rates to those released without use of holding pens two years after release. No statistical analyses were performed. At least six out of 45 (13%) swift foxes held in pens before release survived over two years post-release, compared with at least five out of 43 (12%) released without use of holding pens. In 1983–1987, forty-five translocated swift foxes were held in pens before release. Pens (3.7 × 7.3 m) were fenced for protection from cattle. Animals were placed in pens in October–November and released between the following spring and fall. They were provided with supplementary food for 1–8 months after release. In 1987–1991, four hundred and thirty-three foxes were released without use of holding pens. Released foxes included both wild-born and captive-bred animals. All foxes released from pens and 155 of those released directly were radio-tracked, from the ground or air, for up to two years.

    Study and other actions tested
  5. A study in 1982–1993 in a desert reserve in Israel (Saltz & Rubenstein 1995) found that a released population of captive-reared Asiatic wild ass Equus hemionus spp. kept in holding pens prior to release persisted over 10 years, and the reproductive success of females increased over time. The number of adult females (≥3 years old) in the released herd was 14 in 1987 and 16 in 1993. The reproductive success of released females increased over time (first five years = 0.27; following 4–5 years = 0.74 foals/female/year). By 1993, sixty-six foals had been born in the wild, of which 24 were second or third generation. The reproductive success of wild-born females (0.81) was higher than released females (0.19) at the same age. From 1982–1987, fourteen adult females and 14 adult males aged two to six (except one 17-year-old animal) were released into a 200 km2 nature reserve in the Negev Desert in four release events. Three females died immediately. Asses were sourced from zoos and maintained in a 2km2 enclosure until the release program began. Before three releases, animals were kept in a holding pen for up to three months with food, water and shade. Animals were released directly into the wild in the final release. Wild asses were surveyed 2–3 times/week in the spring and summer by random visual searching from an off-road vehicle, tracking of spoor and monitoring of water sources. The population size of males is not reported.

    Study and other actions tested
  6. A study in 1978–1990 on a savanna site in Namibia (Scheepers & Venzke 1995) found that released captive-bred or captive-reared African wild dogs Lycaon pictus held in a holding pen prior to release did not survive more than six months. None of 24 African wild dogs introduced at the site survived for more than six months. Causes of death included starvation, predation by lions Panthera leo and rabies. In 1978, 1989 and 1990, a total of 24 captive-bred wild dogs were released. In 1990, animals were held in an enclosure adjacent to the release site prior to release, and were vaccinated against rabies and canine distemper. While in the enclosure, wild dogs were fed daily and live springbok were released in the pen, so they could learn to hunt. Methods used for monitoring animals introduced in 1978 and 1989 were unclear. Animals introduced in 1990 were monitored for four months after release and, if dogs did not feed for 2–3 days, they were provided with a springbok carcass. The 1978 release was of captive-reared animals (details of whether or not they were born in captivity are not given). The 1989 and 1990 releases were of captive-bred animals.

    Study and other actions tested
  7. A study in 1990–1994 in a desert reserve in southwest Saudi Arabia (Haque & Smith 1996) found that most captive-bred Arabian sand gazelles Gazella subgutturosa marica kept in holding pens prior to release survived for at least four years, the population bred successfully and nearly doubled in size. Of the 164 sand gazelles released, 155 (95%) survived for at least four years. A total of 108 births were recorded in the wild and the number of sand gazelles increased to approximately 300 individuals over four years. In 1990­–1993, a total of 135 sand gazelles were moved from captive-breeding facilities to a fenced 2,200-km2 open desert steppe reserve. Before release, gazelles were kept in four 40 × 30-m quarantine enclosures for 2–3 months and then transferred to a 25-ha pre-release enclosure for 10–14 months. Twenty-five gazelle died within the enclosures before release. A total of 164 gazelle (98 translocated and 66 born in the enclosures) were released in five groups in 1991–1994. Radio-tagged individuals (number not reported) were monitored 1–2 times/week by ground telemetry and at least once each fortnight by air telemetry (dates not reported).

    Study and other actions tested
  8. A study in 1998 in a grassland, shrubland and forest reserve in Arizona, USA (Parsons 1998) found that most captive-bred Mexican wolves Canis lupus baileyi kept in holding pens prior to release in groups and provided with supplementary food did not survive over eight months after release into the wild. Out of 11 captive-bred Mexican wolves released, six (55%) were illegally killed within eight months, three (27%) were returned to captivity and two (18%) survived in the wild for at least one year (long term survival is not reported). Three weeks after their release, three individuals from one family group killed an adult elk Cervus canadensis. Two females gave birth two months after release but only one pup survived. Eleven wolves in three family groups were released in March 1998. Before release, wolves were kept for two months in pre-release holding pens, where they were fed carcasses of native prey. Carcasses were provided as supplementary food for two months post-release when sufficient killing of prey was confirmed. The released wolves were fitted with radio-collars. No monitoring details are provided.

    Study and other actions tested
  9. A study in 1996–1999 at a woodland reserve in Queensland, Australia (Pople et al. 2001) found that captive-bred bridled nailtail wallabies Onychogalea fraenata kept in holding pens where predators were controlled prior to release had similar average annual survival after release to that of wild-born translocated animals. Over four years, the average annual survival of captive-bred bridled nailtail wallabies (57–92%) did not differ significantly from that of wild-born translocated animals (77–80%). In 1996–1998, one hundred and twenty-four captive-bred and nine wild-born translocated bridled nailtail wallabies were released into three sites across Idalia National Park. Ten captive-bred wallabies were held in a 10-ha enclosure within the reserve for six months before release, and 85 were bred within the 10-ha enclosure. All of the 133 released wallabies were kept in a holding pen (30-m diameter) for one week at each site before release. Mammalian predators were culled at release sites. A total of 67 wallabies (58 captive-bred, nine wild-born) were radio-tagged and tracked every 2–7 days in 1996–1998. Wallabies were live-trapped at irregular intervals with 20–35 wire cage traps in 1997–1999.

    Study and other actions tested
  10. A study in 1998–2001 on a grassland site in Montana, USA (Smeeton & Weagle 2001) found that after the release of captive-bred swift foxes Vulpes velox using holding pens prior to release, most animals survived for at least one to three years, and some successfully bred. One to three years after introduction, a maximum of 69 of the 76 reintroduced foxes were still alive. Over the three years after introduction, 24–29 cubs were born in the wild. In the summers of 1998–2000, a total of 76 foxes were held in pens at the release site and, after 10 days, were released. Twenty-four animals were radio-tracked in 1999–2001. Methods used in the study to determine mortality and breeding success were unclear.

    Study and other actions tested
  11. A study in 1998–1999 in a grassland site in Jiangsu, China (Hu & Jiang 2002) found that following release of captive-bred animals after being held in pre-release pens, all Père David’s deer Elaphurus davidianus survived for at least six weeks. Seven deer were released and all were still alive six weeks later. For 18 months prior to release, eight deer (one male, three female, and four immature animals) were held in a fenced enclosure. Seven deer were released into Dafeng Reserve in November 1998. One female was fitted with a radio-collar to enable location of the group. From November 1998 to April 1999, released deer were located at least three times/week.

    Study and other actions tested
  12. A study in 1987–1994 in a grassland site in North Carolina, USA (Phillips et al. 2003) found that following release of captive-bred animals, some of which were kept in holding pens and then provided supplementary food, 12 of 63 red wolves Canis lupus rufus survived for at least seven years, and some successfully reproduced. Seven years after wolves were first reintroduced, 12 of 63 translocated animals were still alive. By the same time, at least 66 pups had been born. Between October 1987 and December 1994, sixty-three captive-bred wolves were released. Twenty-nine wolves were held in pens (225 m2) on site before release (duration: 14 days-49 months), and thirty-four animals were released on arrival at the site. An unspecified number of wolves were fitted with radio-collars. From October 1987 to December 1994, wolves were radio-tracked from the ground and from an aeroplane. Monitoring frequency was not specified. Supplementary food (deer carcasses) was provided at release sites for 1-2 months after release from the ninth release onwards.

    Study and other actions tested
  13. A study in 1996–2001 of a wooded valley in a reserve in the Galilee region, Israel (Bar-David et al. 2005) found that most captive-bred Persian fallow deer Dama mesopotamica kept in holding pens prior to release survived for at least five years and over one-third of females observed 1–3 years after release reproduced. Sixty of 74 (81%) captive-bred deer (13 males, 47 females) survived for at least five years post-release. Six of 15 females observed 1–3 years after release had fawns with them. A total of 124 captive-bred Persian fallow deer were released into the wild in groups of 10–19 deer in the spring and autumn during each of five years in 1996–2000. The deer were held in an 11-ha enclosure for three months before release. Seventy-four deer (57 females, 17 males) were fitted with radio-collars. Released deer were monitored for five years post-release through radio-tracking, video and direct observation.

    Study and other actions tested
  14. A controlled, before-and-after study in 2001 in five shrubland sites in Western Australia, Australia (Hardman & Moro 2006) found that captive-bred banded hare-wallabies Lagostrophus fasciatus and rufous hare-wallabies Lagorchestes hirsutus, some of which were placed in holding pens prior to release into a fenced peninsula (with predator controls, supplementary food and water), survived at least two months after being released, although rufous hare-wallabies lost body condition while awaiting release in holding pens. After 1-2 months, 10 of 16 rufous hare-wallabies and 12 of 18 banded hare-wallabies were still alive. Overall both rufous and banded hare-wallabies recaptured had similar body conditions to when they were released regardless of whether they were initially put in holding pens, although rufous hare-wallabies lost 12% of body condition while waiting for release in holding pens (data presented as a body condition index; see paper for details). Sixteen captive-bred rufous hare-wallabies and 18 captive-born banded hare-wallabies were released at five sites in August 2001. Six rufous hare-wallabies and nine banded-hare wallabies were placed in separate 3-ha enclosures with electrified fencing for 10–19 days before release. Remaining animals were released directly into the wild. Supplementary food (kangaroo pellets, alfalfa) and water were made available to all hare-wallabies (those kept in holding pens and those not; feeding duration not given). Hare-wallabies were monitored by radio tracking (once/week for 1.5 years after release) and live-trapping (at 4 and 8-9 weeks after release). Release areas were within a fenced peninsula where multiple introduced mammals were controlled or eradicated.

    Study and other actions tested
  15. A review of a study in 2001–2002 at a restored wetland in London, UK (Mathews et al. 2006) found that using holding pens prior to release of captive-bred and translocated water voles Arvicola terrestris resulted in greater post-release survival than did releasing them directly into the wild. Voles released from pens were three times more likely to be recorded during the initial follow-up survey than were those released without use of pens (result presented as odds ratio). A total of 109 captive-bred and 38 wild-caught water voles were released in groups of 6–15 animals in May–July 2001. Prior to release, no water voles were present at the site. An unspecified number of animals were placed in an enclosure with food and shelter and allowed to burrow out at will. The remainder were released directly into the wild. Animals were monitored by live-trapping over three periods of five days, between autumn 2001 and early-summer 2002.

    Study and other actions tested
  16. A study in 1995–2005 in 12 dry savanna and temperate grassland sites in South Africa (Gusset et al. 2008) found that captive-bred and translocated African wild dogs Lycaon pictus which spent more time in holding pens had a higher survival rate after release. Wild dog families that had more time to socialise in holding pens prior to release into fenced areas had a higher survival rate than groups which spent less time in holding pens (data presented as model results). Overall, 85% of released animals and their wild-born offspring survived the first six months after release/birth, Released animals that survived their first year had a high survival rate 12–18 months (91%) and 18–24 months (92%) after release. Between 1995 and 2005, one hundred and twenty-seven wild dogs (79 wild-caught, 16 captive-bred, 16 wild-caught but captive-raised, 16 “mixed” pups) were translocated over 18 release events into 12 sites in five provinces of South Africa. Individuals were kept in pre-release pens for an average of 212 days, but groups were given between 15 and 634 days to socialise in pens prior to release. Animals were monitored for 24 months after release, and the 129 pups which they produced after release were monitored up to 12 months of age. Forty characteristics of the individual animals, release sites and methods of release were recorded, and their impact on post-release survival was tested.

    Study and other actions tested
  17. A review of eight studies in 1989-2005 in eight grassland and woodland sites in Victoria, Australia (Winnard & Coulson 2008) found that in one study, released captive-bred eastern-barred bandicoots Perameles gunnii, some of which were placed in a holding pen prior to release, survived at least one year and bred. Captive-bred bandicoots, some of which were released into a holding pen prior to release into the wild survived at least one year and both pouch young and wild-born adults were observed. In total 22 captive-bred bandicoots were released into a 585 ha fenced predator-free enclosure in 2004-2005. Initially four animals were placed in a 1 ha holding pen prior to release. The remaining released animals were not placed in a holding pen prior to release. Bandicoots were released in stages in each site. Red fox Vulpes vulpes were controlled. Bandicoots were monitored by live-trapping but frequency and methods are not detailed.

    Study and other actions tested
  18. A study in 2006–2008 in nine areas around rivers in south-west Germany (Peters et al. 2009) found that most captive-bred European mink Mustela lutreola kept in holding pens prior to release survived at least one year after release. Of 48 captive-bred animals released, 36 were still alive after 12 months. All animals were microchipped and 33 were fitted with radio-transmitters. For two weeks before release, mink were kept in enclosures measuring 5 × 2 m, containing small trees, branches, and small streams. In May 2006–August 2007, forty-eight animals were released. They were radio-tracked twice each day, in April 2006–May 2008. Animals not bearing transmitters were surveyed using live traps.

    Study and other actions tested
  19. A study in 2001–2005 of riparian scrub at a site in California, USA (Hamilton et al. 2010) found that captive-bred riparian brush rabbits Sylvilagus bachmani riparius kept longer in holding pens at the release site before release had greater survival rates than those kept in pens for shorter times. Survival increased with duration held in soft-release pens prior to release, especially for smaller animals (result presented as model coefficient). Survival increased with time since release, with four-week post-release survival (71%) being lower than average four-weekly survival over the following eight weeks (89%). Wild rabbits taken into a captive breeding program produced 476 offspring from November 2001 to July 2005. Of these, 325 were released, in July 2002–July 2005, to unoccupied habitat within the species’ historic range. They were held in soft-release pens (0.3–0.4 ha) and released after 2–20 days. Survival was monitored by radio-tracking, at least twice weekly.

    Study and other actions tested
  20. A controlled study in 1999–2001 on three grassland sites in an area in South Dakota, USA (Biggins, Godbey et al. 2011) found that captive-born black-footed ferret Mustela nigripes kits initially kept in holding pens had lower survival rates after release than did wild-born translocated kits. Thirty-day post-release survival of captive-born kits (66%) was lower than that of wild-born translocated kits at the same site (94%). Annual survival was also lower for captive-born kits (females: 44%; males: 22%) than for wild-born kits (females: 67%; males: 43%). Annual survival at the donor site remained high (females: 80%; males: 51%) whilst survival of translocated and released kits was comparable with that at an unmanipulated colony (females: 59%; males: 28%). Eighteen captive-bred ferrets were released along with 18 wild-born ferrets at a site from which the species was then absent. Captive-born ferrets were transferred to outdoor conditioning pens, sited on prairie dog colonies, when about 90 days old and then released on 29 September and 13 October 1999. Wild-born ferrets were released the day after capture. All were born in 1999. Ferrets at the release site, the donor site for wild-born kits and an unmanipulated site were monitored by radio-tracking and by reading transponder chips.

    Study and other actions tested
  21. A study in 1991 at a grassland site in Wyoming, USA (Biggins, Miller et al. 2011) found that released captive-born black-footed ferrets Mustela nigripes kept in holding pens in the release site (where predators had been controlled) had higher post-release mortality than did resident wild ferrets. The estimated one-month survival rate for captive-born released ferrets (49%) was lower than that for free-ranging wild ferrets at their ancestral site (93%). Of animals known to have died, five were predated by coyotes Canis latrans, one by a badger Taxidea taxus, one by a golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos and two died of starvation. Black-footed ferrets were extirpated in the wild in 1985–1986. Thirty-seven captive-bred ferrets were released in September–November 1991, when 4–6 months old, onto a white-tailed prairie dog Cynomys leucurus colony. Before releases, 66 coyotes and 63 badgers were removed from the site. Ferrets spent two weeks in acclimatisation cages at the reintroduction site before release. Dead prairie dogs were provided in the cage for 10 days post-release. Ferrets were monitored by radio-tracking for ≤42 days after release.

    Study and other actions tested
  22. A study in 1998-2010 in a desert site in South Australia (Moseby et al. 2011) found that after being kept in a holding pen, all four mammal populations released into an invasive-species-free fenced enclosure survived for eight years and bred. After being kept in a holding pen prior to release into a fenced enclosure where red foxes Vulpes vulpes, cats Felis catus and rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus had been eradicated, greater stick-nest rats Leporillus conditor, burrowing bettongs Bettongia lesueur, western barred bandicoots Perameles bougainville and greater bilbies Macrotis lagotis were detected for eight years, increased their distribution range within five years and produced a second generation within two years. In 1998–2005, nine captive-bred greater bilbies, eight wild-born greater stick-nest rats, 10 wild-born burrowing bettongs, and 12 wild-born western barred bandicoots were translocated into a 14-km2 invasive-species-free fenced area. Rabbits, cats and foxes were eradicated within the fenced area in 1999. Animals were released into a 10-ha holding pen before full release after a few months. Between 2000 and 2010, tracks were surveyed annually along eight 1 km × 1 m transects.

    Study and other actions tested
  23. A before-and-after study in 2007–2010 of a primarily woodland and shrubland site in Victoria, Australia (Schultz et al. 2011) found that captive-bred brush-tailed rock-wallabies Petrogale penicillata placed in a holding pen prior to release exhibited stress levels consistent with maintaining good health. Stress index values measured from blood samples of released animals, were not significantly different to those of animals held in captivity before release. For both groups, the levels indicated lower levels of stress-induced cellular damage than the animals were able to mitigate. Of 41 captive-born wallabies, 24 (aged 1.1–4.3 years) were selected, following health examinations, for transfer to a 1.3-ha pre-release enclosure. They were kept in this enclosure for 3–17 months. Shelter was provided in the enclosure but animals foraged on natural foods, except during trapping procedures. Twenty-one were then released between November 2008 and October 2010. Samples were taken from 11 that were subsequently recaptured, up to October 2010.

    Study and other actions tested
  24. A study in 2007–2012 in a forest and grassland reserve in Córdoba, Argentina (Barri & Cufré 2014) found that captive-bred guanacos Lama guanicoe kept for 38-184 days in large holding pens before release had higher post-release survival than guanacos kept for 3–15 days in small holding pens. Of 25 guanacos kept for 38-184 days in large holding pens before release, 24 (96%) survived the first month of which 19 (79%) survived over one year after release. Of 113 guanacos kept for 3–15 days in small holding pens before release, only 24 (21%) survived the first month of which 17 (71%) survived over one year after release. In 2011 and 2012, twenty-five captive-bred guanacos were kept in a 20,000-m2 holding pen for 38-184 days before release into a 24,774-ha national park. In 2007, 113 captive-bred guanacos were kept in a 1,200-m2 holding pen and fed with alfalfa for 3–15 days before release into the same national park. Guanacos were marked and 42 individuals (6 in 2011 and 36 in 2007) were radio-tagged. Animals were monitored 2–3 times for 4–5 days during the first month post-release and 1–2 times each month for 2–3 days up to one year post-release.

    Study and other actions tested
  25. A study in 2011–2014 of a dry dwarf-scrubland site in Saudi Arabia (Islam et al. 2014) found that captive-bred Arabian gazelles Gazella arabica kept in holding pens prior to release into a fenced reserve started breeding in the year following the first releases. Seven females gave birth in August–September of the year after the first releases and all calves survived to the year end at least. Of 49 gazelles released over three years, 10 had died by the time of the final releases. In 2011–2014, three groups of captive-born gazelles, totalling 49 animals, were released in a 2,244-km2 fenced reserve. They were moved from a wildlife research centre and kept for 23 days to a few months in holding pens (500 × 500 m) prior to release at the reserve. Water and food was provided for three weeks following release. Released gazelles were radio-tracked from the ground and air.

    Study and other actions tested
  26. A before-and-after study in 1985–2003 on a nature reserve in Xinjiang, China (Xia et al. 2014) found that following release of captive-bred animals from a pre-release enclosure into the semi-wild (free-roaming in summer, enclosed in winter and provided with food), Przewalski’s horses Equus ferus przewalskii increased in number. The first foals were born two years after the first releases. Over the following 11 years, 107 foals were born in the semi-wild with first-year survival of 75%. At this time, released animals formed 16 groups, comprising 127 individuals. From 2001–2013, eighty-nine horses from a captive-breeding centre were held in a pre-release enclosure (20 ha) for an unspecified period of time before being released into semi-wild conditions (free-roaming except in winter, when enclosed). The founders for the captive population were sourced from zoos in Europe and North America. The release site (and adjacent areas of Mongolia) were the last refuge of Przewalski’s horse, before extinction in the wild in 1969. Released animals roamed freely from spring to fall, but were kept in a coral in winter, to enable supplementary feeding and to reduce competition with domestic horse herders.

    Study and other actions tested
  27. A replicated study in 2011–2012 in two forest sites in Indiana, USA (Blythe et al. 2015) found that when captive-bred Allegheny woodrats Neotoma magister were kept in holding pens prior to release, early survival rates were higher than those not kept in holding pens, but overall survival rates of captive-bred animals tended to be lower than those of wild resident woodrats after 4-5 months. In the first 14 days after release, seven of 16 (44%) captive-bred woodrats that were not initially kept in holding pens survived, compared to nine of 13 (69%) captive-bred woodrats that were initially kept in holding pens. After 4–5 months, captive-bred woodrats not initially kept in holding pens had significantly lower survival rates (19%) than wild-born, resident woodrats (56%). The 4-5 month survival rates of captive-bred woodrats initially kept in holding pens (31%) was also lower than wild-born, resident woodrats, but not statistically significantly lower. In April–August 2011 and 2012, a total of 29 captive-bred woodrats (>90 days old) were radio-tagged and released into two unconnected wild populations. Sixteen were directly released into the wild in 2011. Thirteen were held for two weeks in wire mesh enclosures (1.2 × 2.1 × 0.6 m) with nest boxes within the release area before release in 2012. In June–August 2011 and 2012, two samples of 16 and 17 wild-born woodrats, born that year, were radio‐tagged. Captive-bred and wild-born woodrats were radio-tracked 1–7 times/week for 4–5 months after release/tagging.

    Study and other actions tested
  28. A study in 2007–2014 in a grassland reserve in Corrientes Province, Argentina (Di Blanco et al. 2015; same experimental set-up as Di Blanco et al. 2017) found that over half of released captive-reared or rehabilitated giant anteaters Myrmecophaga tridactyla, some of which were kept in holding pens and provided supplementary food, survived for at least six months. At least 18 of 31 released giant anteaters survived for a minimum of six months. Long term survival and the fate of the other 13 anteaters is not reported. In 2007–2013, thirty-one giant anteaters (18 males, 13 females; 1–8 years old) were released into a 124-km2 private reserve. Hunting within the reserve was prohibited and livestock were absent. Twenty-two anteaters were wild-born but captive-reared, six were from zoos (origin not stated) and three were wild-born but rehabilitated in captivity from injuries. Of the 18 surviving anteaters, six had been released after a short period in a 0.5-ha pen at the release site and 12 after 7–30 days in a 7-ha pen. Supplementary food was provided for several weeks after release. In 2007–2014, thirteen anteaters were tracked for less than six months, and 18 were tracked for 6–46 months.

    Study and other actions tested
  29. A study in 2006–2008 in a woodland and shrubland site in Northern Territory, Australia (Short & Hide 2015) found that captive-bred red-tailed phascogales Phascogale calura kept in pre-release pens prior to release into a fenced area with supplementary food and nest boxes survived for less than a year. Six captive-bred females survived for at least three months after release, with at least two of them carrying young. However, there were no sightings after the first year post-release, and the population is believed to have died out. Authors suggest that there may have been a shortage of tree hollows for nesting. In July 2006 and January–February 2007, thirty-two captive-bred phascogales were released into a 26-ha fenced reserve after spending either 10 days or over four months in a pre-release pen (3×6×2 or 4.5×3.0×2.2 m). Supplementary food was provided for one week after release. Feral cats were abundant outside of the fence. Eleven nest boxes were provided within 150m of the release pen. No information on monitoring is provided.

    Study and other actions tested
  30. A randomized, controlled study in 2005 in a grassland and forest site in Victoria, Australia (de Milliano et al. 2016) found that captive-bred eastern barred bandicoots Perameles gunnii kept in holding pens prior to release into a fenced reserve had similar post-release survival and body weight compared to bandicoots released directly from captivity. Four out of six bandicoots (67%) released after time in holding pens survived at least 22 days after release, which was similar to the five out of six bandicoots (83%) released directly that survived this period. Maximum weight loss (released from pen: 13%; released directly: 13% loss of weight when released) and final weight 3–4 weeks after release (released from pen: 97%; released directly: 98% of weight when released) were similar. Twelve adult captive-bred bandicoots were randomly divided into two groups of six. One group was kept in a 1-ha pre-release pen (500m from the eventual release site) for one week and provided supplementary food and water and the other group was released directly from captivity. Both groups were released simultaneously into a 170-ha fenced reserve, free of invasive predators. Bandicoots were radio-tracked daily, and were trapped and weighed every 4–5 days, for one month.

    Study and other actions tested
  31. A controlled study in 2007–2012 in a grassland reserve in Corrientes, Argentina (Di Blanco et al. 2017; same experimental set-up as Di Blanco et al. 2015) found that after being kept in holding pens and provided with supplementary food, captive-bred giant anteaters Myrmecophaga tridactyla released into the wild were less nocturnal in their activity patterns than were wild-born rehabilitated individuals. Captive-bred giant anteaters were proportionally less active at night than wild-born animals (43% vs 70% of activity records were at night). During 2007–2012, three captive-bred and four wild-born adult giant anteaters were released into a 124-km2 private reserve. Wild-born animals were rehabilitated after being injured by hunters or in road accidents. Six anteaters (all wild-born and two captive-bred anteaters) were released after spending a short period of time in a 0.5 ha acclimatisation pen. The remaining 12 anteaters spent 7-30 days in a 7 ha holding pen at the release site prior to release. Supplementary food was provided in the holding pen and for several weeks after anteaters were released. Each of the seven anteaters was fitted with a radio-transmitter and tracked for 1–2 x 24 h periods/month in 2007 and 2011. The released anteaters were further monitored using 14 baited camera traps for an average of 336 days/trap in 2008–2012.

    Study and other actions tested
Please cite as:

Littlewood, N.A., Rocha, R., Smith, R.K., Martin, P.A., Lockhart, S.L., Schoonover, R.F., Wilman, E., Bladon, A.J., Sainsbury, K.A., Pimm S. and Sutherland, W.J. (2020) Terrestrial Mammal Conservation: Global Evidence for the Effects of Interventions for terrestrial mammals excluding bats and primates. Synopses of Conservation Evidence Series. University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.

Where has this evidence come from?

List of journals searched by synopsis

All the journals searched for all synopses

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation
Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation - Published 2020

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

What Works 2021 cover

What Works in Conservation

What Works in Conservation provides expert assessments of the effectiveness of actions, based on summarised evidence, in synopses. Subjects covered so far include amphibians, birds, mammals, forests, peatland and control of freshwater invasive species. More are in progress.

More about What Works in Conservation

Download free PDF or purchase
The Conservation Evidence Journal

The Conservation Evidence Journal

An online, free to publish in, open-access journal publishing results from research and projects that test the effectiveness of conservation actions.

Read the latest volume: Volume 21

Go to the CE Journal

Discover more on our blog

Our blog contains the latest news and updates from the Conservation Evidence team, the Conservation Evidence Journal, and our global partners in evidence-based conservation.


Who uses Conservation Evidence?

Meet some of the evidence champions

Endangered Landscape ProgrammeRed List Champion - Arc Kent Wildlife Trust The Rufford Foundation Save the Frogs - Ghana Mauritian Wildlife Supporting Conservation Leaders
Sustainability Dashboard National Biodiversity Network Frog Life The international journey of Conservation - Oryx Cool Farm Alliance UNEP AWFA Bat Conservation InternationalPeople trust for endangered species Vincet Wildlife Trust