Install electric fencing to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict

How is the evidence assessed?
  • Effectiveness
    70%
  • Certainty
    65%
  • Harms
    5%

Study locations

Key messages

  • Eleven studies evaluated the effects of installing electric fencing to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Six studies were in the USA (and a further one was presumed to be in the USA) and one each was in Canada, South Africa, Brazil and Spain.

COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)

POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)

BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)

OTHER (11 STUDIES)

  • Human-wildlife conflict (11 studies): Six out of 10 randomized and/or controlled or before-and-after studies (including eight replicated studies), in the USA (and a further one presumed to be in the USA), Canada, Brazil and Spain, found that electric fences reduced or prevented entry to livestock enclosures or predation of livestock by carnivores. Two studies found that some designs of electric fencing prevented coyotes from entering enclosures and killing or wounding lambs. The other two studies found electric fencing did not reduce livestock predation or prevent fence crossings by carnivores. A before-and-after study in South Africa found that electrifying a fence reduced digging of burrows under the fence that black-backed jackals could pass through.

About key messages

Key messages provide a descriptive index to studies we have found that test this intervention.

Studies are not directly comparable or of equal value. When making decisions based on this evidence, you should consider factors such as study size, study design, reported metrics and relevance of the study to your situation, rather than simply counting the number of studies that support a particular interpretation.

Supporting evidence from individual studies

  1. A replicated, controlled study (year not stated) of pasture at an undisclosed location, presumed to be in the USA (Gates et al. 1978) found that electric fencing prevented coyotes Canis latrans from entering an enclosure and killing lambs. During three trials, coyotes did not kill any of eight lambs in an enclosure surrounded by electric fencing but, in each trial, all eight lambs in an enclosure with conventional fencing were killed in 8–9 days. Two sheep enclosures (each 8,000 m2) were constructed within a coyote-proof 64-ha pasture. One enclosure had a 12-wire electric fence, 1.5 m high, with an additional electrified wire 20 cm outside the enclosure and 15 cm above the ground. The other enclosure had conventional wire fencing (81-cm woven wire with two strands of barbed wire, 15 cm apart, above the woven wire). For each of three trials, each lasting two weeks, a pair of wild-born captive coyotes was released into the pasture and eight lambs were placed in each of the two enclosures and observed daily. A different coyote pair was used for each trial.

    Study and other actions tested
  2. A replicated, controlled study in 1975–1976 in a captive facility in Oregon, USA (Thompson 1979) found that most coyotes Canis latrans crossed electric fences and all 18 electric fence designs trialled were crossed by at least some coyotes. Coyotes crossed fences in 48–100% of the 20–30 tests/design. The most successful design (crossed in 13 of 27 tests) included three low-down electric wires laid out horizontally from the main vertical conventional fence (99-cm-high woven wire with two barbed wires above and one at the base). See paper for further details of fence designs. Tests involved 10 coyotes, conditioned to walk a route. Electric fences of 18 designs were sequentially placed along this route and 20–30 tests were conducted for each to see if coyotes would cross. The 18 designs represented modifications of standard fences used to house livestock in the study area, supplemented with wires charged by a 12-V battery. Trials were conducted from April 1975 to March 1976 and lasted each time for 10–15 minutes.

    Study and other actions tested
  3. A replicated, before-and-after study in 1974–1978 on five farms in an area of boreal mixedwood forest of Alberta, Canada (Dorrance & Bourne 1980) found that installing electric fences reduced the numbers of sheep killed by coyotes Canis latrans. These results were not tested for statistical significance. During the three years after electric fences were installed at five farms, fewer sheep were killed by coyotes (26) than during the three years before the electric fences were installed (147). The study was conducted in five farms, each covering 6–65 ha. An annual average of 44–550 sheep grazed at each farm in May–October. Between 0.8 and 3.2 km of electric fences were installed at each farm in 1976–1977. At two farms, fences had one or two strands of barbed wire spaced 15 cm apart above 81-cm-high woven wire, with a charged wire placed 15 cm above the ground and another 12 cm from the fence around the outside perimeter. At three farms, the fence was made of seven 2.7-mm wires alternating charged and grounded. Predation losses were reported by farmers.

    Study and other actions tested
  4. A replicated, controlled study in 1977 at two sheep ranches in North Dakota, USA (Linhart et al. 1982) found that 12-wire electric fencing prevented coyotes Canis latrans from entering enclosures and killing lambs, but 6-wire electric fencing did not. At both ranches, 12-wire electric fencing prevented coyotes from killing lambs for at least 60 days, but 16–17 lambs were killed in 22–68 days in enclosures with conventional fencing. At one ranch, lambs were also killed in enclosures with 6–wire electric fencing (nine lambs killed in 20 days) and 6–wire electric fencing with a ‘trip’ wire (four lambs killed in four days). Two sheep ranches each had one enclosure with electric fencing (wires alternately charged) and one enclosure with conventional fencing (five strands of barbed wire, 104 cm high). Both ranches tested 12-wire electric fencing (168 cm high) for 60 days and conventional fencing for 22–68 days. One ranch tested 6-wire electric fencing (78 cm high) with and without an additional ‘trip’ wire (25 cm high, 51 cm from the fence) for four and 20 days respectively. All enclosures (1–1.5 ha) were kept stocked with 10 lambs and checked every other day for coyote kills during each of the six trials.

    Study and other actions tested
  5. A replicated, before-and-after study in 1978 at two sheep ranches in Kansas, USA (Linhart et al. 1982) found that adding five electric wires to the outside of conventional fencing prevented coyotes Canis latrans from entering enclosures and killing or wounding lambs, but results varied when fewer wires were used. At one ranch, lambs were killed by coyotes in an enclosure with no electric wires (five lambs killed in 105 days) and four electric wires (one lamb killed in 17 days), but after adding a fifth wire no lambs were killed for at least 60 days. At the other ranch, lambs were killed or wounded in an enclosure with no electric wires (11 lambs killed in 11 days) and two electric wires (nine lambs killed or wounded in 14 days), but after adding two additional wires (total of four) no lambs were killed for at least 60 days. Two sheep ranches each had one enclosure (0.9–1.8 ha) with conventional fencing (woven wire and 1–2 strands of barbed wire, 110 cm high). At each ranch, enclosures were kept stocked with 10–20 lambs and checked for coyote kills during one trial (11–105 days) with conventional fencing only and two trials (11–60 days) with 2–5 electric wires added.

    Study and other actions tested
  6. A replicated, before-and-after study in 1979 of 14 sheep producers in the USA (Linhart et al. 1982) found that installing electric fences or electric wires reduced predation of sheep by coyotes Canis latrans. Overall, the total number of sheep killed by coyotes was lower during a total of 228 months and 22 lambing seasons after electric fences or wires were installed (51 sheep) compared to during a total of 271 months and 27 lambing seasons before (1,064 sheep). However, the difference was not tested for statistical significance. In 1979, a total of 37 sheep producers using electric fencing or electric wires offset from existing conventional fencing were interviewed with a questionnaire. Fourteen responded with adequate information to compare sheep losses before and after electric fencing or wires were installed. Most respondents were reported to check their sheep at least once/day. Two-thirds answered questions from memory rather than written records.

    Study and other actions tested
  7. A before-and-after study in 1983–1985 in a dry shrubland site in Cape Province, South Africa (Heard & Stephenson 1987) found that electrifying a fence reduced digging of burrows under the fence that could then be used by black-backed jackals Canis mesomelas to enter and predate livestock. Fewer holes were dug under the fence after it was electrified (0–11 holes/week) than before (17–87 holes/week). Where the digger could be identified, holes were dug by black-backed jackals, warthogs Phacochoerus africanus, porcupines Hystrix africaeaustralis, bushpigs Potamochoerus larvatus and antbears Orycteropus afer. A 13.75-km-long game fence, that shared a boundary with five farms, was electrified by adding electric wires 250 mm away from both sides of the fence, 200 mm above the ground. The fence was monitored weekly for burrows for 33 weeks before electrification (September 1983 to May 1984) and for 44 weeks after (August 1984 to June 1985).

    Study and other actions tested
  8. A replicated, before-and-after study in 1984–1985 of 51 sheep producers in Oregon, Washington and California, USA (Nass & Theade 1988) found that installing electric fencing reduced predation of sheep by coyotes Canis latrans. The number of sheep killed by coyotes each year was lower during two or more years after electric fencing was installed (average 3.5 sheep/year; 0.3%) than during 1–7 years before (average 41 sheep/year; 3.9%). Results were similar when sheep losses were included for producers that had electric fencing installed for one year only (before: 4.3% of sheep killed; after 0.7% killed; numbers not reported). More producers lost no sheep to coyotes after electric fencing was installed (28 of 51, 55%) than before (5 of 51, 10%). In 1984–1985, a total of 51 sheep producers that used electric fencing were interviewed. Electric fences enclosed areas of 1–1,550 ha containing 20–20,000 sheep. Sheep losses to coyotes were recorded during 1–7 years before electric fencing was installed and during one year (five producers) or two or more years (46 producers) after.

    Study and other actions tested
  9. A randomized, replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in 2006 in a captive centre in Minnesota, USA and a replicated, controlled study in 2007 at 12 pastures in Montana, USA (Lance et al. 2010) found that electric fences with flags attached delayed grey wolf Canis lupus and red wolf Canis rufus entry. In the captive study, grey wolves and red wolves took longer (10 days) to cross electric fences with flags than non-electric fences with flags (1 day) or unfenced areas (<5 minutes). In the pasture study, wolves never entered pastures with electric fences and flags but twice entered pastures without electric fences and flags. The captive study ran for two weeks, using 45 wolves in 15 packs. Each pack (1–7 animals) was housed in a 105–925-m2 enclosure. Five packs were offered food (white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus) positioned within an 18-m2 electric fence (2,000 V) enclosure with red plastic flags (50 × 10 cm, 50 cm apart), five packs were offered food inside a non-electric fence with flags and five packs were offered food that was not protected by a fence or flags. Animals were monitored 24 hours/day with infra-red cameras. The pasture study was conducted in 12 cattle-grazed pastures (each 16–122 ha) enclosed with conventional barbed wire fences. Six pastures were further protected with electric fences with flags and six were not. Wolf tracks were monitored twice each week for three months.

    Study and other actions tested
  10. A before-and-after study in 2006–2008 in a grassland-dominated cattle ranch in Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil (Cavalcanti et al. 2012) found that after upgrading non-electric fences to become electric fences, a smaller percentage (but larger overall quantity) of cattle losses was due to killings by jaguars Panthera onca. These results were not tested for statistical significance. One year after upgrading fences to electric, 10% (50 of 504) of cattle losses were attributed to killings by jaguars. During the two years before non-electric fences were replaced by electric fences 24–85% (11 of 46 in one year and 24 of 28 in the other) of losses were attributed to killings by jaguars. The study was conducted on a 900-ha farm, fenced with five non-electrified wires at heights of 25, 50, 75, 100 and 125 cm. In February 2008, a 13,745-m perimeter fence was supplemented with two electrified wires (5,000–7,000 V), 25 and 50 cm above the ground. About 630 m of the fence was not electrified. Predation losses in the two years before the electric fence was installed were reported by farmers. After the electric fence was installed, losses were recorded by researchers.

    Study and other actions tested
  11. A replicated, before-and-after study in 2012–2014 of two sheep flocks in Mediterranean forests and scrubland in Andalusia, Spain (Garrotea et al. 2015) found that electric fences prevented night-time predation by Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus. Over one winter and two spring lambing seasons following fence installation, no lynx or other predator attacks occurred inside fences. During the winter lambing season before fence installation, there were seven night-time predation events, involving 13 lambs. Electric fences (75 m perimeter, 106 cm high) were installed in early March 2013 (before the spring lambing season) for two sheep flocks. Fences contained a live braided plastic rope. Above the mesh were two 4-cm-wide conductor strips, giving a total height of 160 cm. Fences were powered from a solar rechargeable battery. Sheep were contained at night, but roamed freely, and suffered attacks, during daytime. All predator attacks on the two flocks were documented from December 2012 to May 2014.

    Study and other actions tested
Please cite as:

Littlewood, N.A., Rocha, R., Smith, R.K., Martin, P.A., Lockhart, S.L., Schoonover, R.F., Wilman, E., Bladon, A.J., Sainsbury, K.A., Pimm S. and Sutherland, W.J. (2020) Terrestrial Mammal Conservation: Global Evidence for the Effects of Interventions for terrestrial mammals excluding bats and primates. Synopses of Conservation Evidence Series. University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.

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Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

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Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

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Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

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