Conservation Evidence: Evidence Data

Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Provide nest boxes for birds Two studies (including one before and after study) from the Netherlands and the UK found that following the provision of nest boxes there was an increase in the number of Eurasian kestrel clutches and breeding tree sparrows. One replicated study from Switzerland found the number of Eurasian wryneck broods in nest boxes declined over five years whilst the number of Eurasian hoopoe broods increased. Eight studies from Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK (six were replicated) found that nest boxes in agricultural habitats were occupied by Eurasian kestrel, long-eared owl, common starling, tits Parus spp., tree sparrow, stock dove and jackdaw, and Eurasian wryneck and Eurasian hoopoe. Whilst two studies from the UK (a replicated, paired site study and a controlled study) found that carrion crows did not nest in artificial trees and tree sparrows showed a preference for nest boxes in wetland habitat, compared to those in farmland sites. Two replicated studies from Sweden found that nest success within boxes was related to the amount of pasture available and nest boxes positioned higher above the ground had higher occupancy, numbers of eggs and numbers of hatched young. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F155https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F155Sat, 14 Jan 2012 15:49:39 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Clean nest boxes to increase occupancy or reproductive success Five studies from Spain and North America found that various songbirds preferentially nested in cleaned nest boxes, compared to used ones. One study from the USA found that eastern bluebirds showed this preference, but most did not switch from a soiled to a cleaned nest box. One study from the USA found that birds showed an avoidance of heavily-soiled boxes and one from Canada found that tree swallows Tachycineta bicolor preferentially selected nests which were sterilised by microwaving. Two studies from the USA found that eastern bluebirds Sialia sialis and house wrens Troglodytes aedon preferentially nested in uncleaned nest boxes, and one study found that prothonotary warblers Protonotaria citrea showed no preference for cleaned or uncleaned boxes. None of the five studies that investigated it found any difference in success or parasitism levels between cleaned and uncleaned nest boxes. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F499https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F499Tue, 04 Sep 2012 16:10:03 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use vocalisations to attract birds to safe areas Six studies from North America, the Galapagos and the Azores found that seabirds were more likely to nest in areas where vocalisations were played, or were successfully attracted to nest in new areas, following the playing of vocalisations. Four of these studies used several interventions at once. One study found that some calls were more effective than others. Two studies from the USA and the Galapagos found that birds did not colonise all new areas where vocalisations were played. It is possible that the result from the Galapagos was due to only having a single year’s data. One controlled study from Hawaii found that albatross were more likely to land in areas where vocalisations were played than in areas without vocalisation playback. A small controlled study from New Zealand found that terns were not more likely to land in areas where vocalisations were played. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F585https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F585Sat, 06 Oct 2012 21:54:59 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Artificially incubate and hand-rear raptors in captivity Six studies from across the world found high success rates for artificial incubation and hand-rearing of raptors. A replicated and controlled study from France found that artificially incubated raptor eggs had significantly lower hatching success than parent-incubated eggs. This study found that fledging success for hand-reared chicks was similar to wild chicks, whilst a replicated and controlled study from Canada found that hand-reared chicks had slower growth and attained a lower weight than parent-reared birds. A replicated study from Mauritius found that hand-rearing of wild eggs had higher success than hand-rearing captive-bred chicks. Three studies that provided methodological comparisons found that American kestrel Falco sparverius eggs were more likely to hatch at 38.5oC, compared to 36oC or 40oC, that peregrine falcon F. peregrinus eggs should be incubated over 37oC and that falcon chicks gained far more weight when saline was added to their diet. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F614https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F614Sun, 14 Oct 2012 12:05:10 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use crop rotation in potato farming systemsPests: Nine studies from Canada and the USA, and one review, investigated the effect of crop rotation on pest or pathogen populations in potato. Three studies (including two replicated studies of which one randomised and one controlled) and a review found crop rotation reduced pest populations and crop diseases in at least one year or at least one site. One paired study (including one replicated, randomised, controlled trial) found pest populations increased in crop rotation. Four studies (including one replicated, randomised, controlled trial) found increases and decreases in pest populations depending on rotation crops used and other treatments. One replicated, randomised, controlled study found no effect. Yield: Three out of five studies (all replicated, controlled, two also randomised) from Canada and the USA, found that crop rotation increased crop yield in some years or with certain rotation crops. The two other studies (both replicated, one also randomised and one replicated) found yield increases and decreases depending on rotation crops used. Profit: One replicated, controlled study found that crop rotation increased profit.Insecticides: Two studies (one replicated, controlled) found that fewer insecticide treatments were needed on rotated plots. Crops studied were alfalfa, barley, broccoli, brown mustard, buckwheat, cotton, lupins, maize, oats, pearl millet, peas, potato, rye, sorghum, soybean, sugar beet, timothy grass, wheat and yellow sweet clover.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F719https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F719Thu, 30 May 2013 11:33:50 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicalsWeeds: Six studies (including six randomised, replicated, controlled tests) from Asia, Europe and North America examined the effect of allelopathic plant remains on weeds by comparing amended soils with weeded controls. Three studies found a reduction in weed growth, and three found effects varied between years, weed groups, or the type of weeding method in controls.Four studies from Asia and North America examined the effect on weeds by comparing amended soils with unweeded controls. Two studies found a reduction in weed growth, but one found that residues applied too far in advance of crop planting had the reverse effect. Two studies found that effects varied between trials, weed species or the type of residue used.Two studies, including one randomised, replicated, controlled laboratory study, found that the decrease in weeds did not last beyond a few days or weeks after residue incorporation. Pests: One randomised, replicated, controlled study in the Philippines found mixed effects on pests. Crop growth: Two of three studies found crop growth was inhibited by allelopathic plant remains, but this could be minimised by changing the timing of application. One study found effects varied between years. Yield: Three randomised, replicated, controlled studies compared yields in amended plots with weeded controls and found positive, negative and mixed effects. Three studies compared amended plots with unweeded controls, two found positive effects on yield and one found mixed effects (depending on the crop). Profit: One study found that amending soils increased profit compared to unweeded controls, but not compared to weeded controls. Crops studied were beans, cotton, maize, rice and wheat.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F728https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F728Thu, 30 May 2013 13:50:22 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull systemParasitism: Two randomised, replicated, controlled studies from Kenya found that push-pull cropping systems increased parasitism of stem borer larvae. One of the studies found no effect on egg parasitism. Natural enemies: Two randomised, replicated, controlled studies from Kenya and South Africa found push-pull systems had more natural predators, both in overall totals and the abundance of different predator groups. Pests: Two of three studies (two randomised, replicated, controlled) in Ethiopia, Kenya and South Africa found fewer pests. One study found no effect on pest infestation, but pests were scarce throughout. Two replicated, controlled studies (one also randomised) found fewer witchweeds. Crop damage: Two of three replicated, controlled studies (one also randomised) found less pest damage, but one study (where pest numbers were low) found effects varied between years and types of damage symptom. Yield: Four of five replicated, controlled studies (two also randomised) found higher yields and one found no effect. Profit and cost: Two studies in Kenya and a review found greater economic benefits. One study found higher production costs in the first year, but equal or lower costs in the following five years. Crops studied were maize and beans.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F753https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F753Thu, 08 Aug 2013 08:41:59 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Install barrier fencing along roads Seven of eight studies (including one replicated and two controlled studies) in Germany, Canada and the USA found that barrier fencing with culverts decreased amphibian road deaths, or decreased deaths provided that the fence length and material were effective. One found that low numbers of amphibians were diverted by barriers during breeding migrations. One replicated study in the USA found that barriers at least 0.6 m high were required to prevent green frogs and leopard frogs climbing over. Two studies in the Netherlands and USA found that treefrogs and 10% of common toads climbed over barrier fencing during breeding migrations. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F756https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F756Wed, 14 Aug 2013 11:23:38 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Freeze sperm or eggs for future use Nine replicated studies (including three controlled studies) in Austria, Australia, Russia, the UK and USA found that following freezing frog and toad sperm viability depended on species and/or cryoprotectant used. One found that although sperm viability was low following freezing, it could be frozen for up to 58 weeks. Five of the studies and one additional replicated study in Australia found that following freezing, viability of sperm and in one case eggs, also depended on storage temperature, storage method, freezing or thawing rate. Seven replicated studies (including three controlled studies) in Austria, Australia, the UK and USA found that frog and toad sperm viability was greatest following freezing with the cryoprotectant dimethyl sulfoxide, glycerol, sucrose or dimethyl formamide. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F876https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F876Thu, 12 Sep 2013 11:09:04 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use an alternative oil source: plant-based Three replicated studies (two controlled) in Norway found growth rates were similar in salmon that were fed diets containing fish oil and vegetable oil. One replicated study in Norway found growth rates were higher in fish fed diets containing vegetable oil. One replicated, controlled study found salmon growth rates were both lower and higher in vegetable oil diets compared to fish oil diets, dependant on family genetics. Two replicated studies (one controlled) in Norway found similar average final body weights between groups of salmon fed both fish oil and vegetable oil diets. Three studies (two replicated, one controlled) in Norway and Scotland found that the fatty acid profile of salmon flesh reflected oil source within diets. A study in Norway found that oil source in diets did not affect salmon broodstock fecundity levels, egg weights, fertility rates, as well as the weights and development of resultant fry. One replicated Norwegian study found that salmon fed vegetable oil diets had high liver lipid and low plasma lipoprotein compared to the fish oil diet. One replicated, controlled study found high levels of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids compared to diets containing rapeseed oil. A replicated, controlled study in Scotland found salmon fed vegetable oil-based diets had lower concentrations of dioxin and polychlorinated biphenyls within flesh, compared with diets containing fish oil. A replicated study in Norway found that fresh, frozen and smoked salmon flesh from fish fed vegetable oil- and fish oil-based diets had similar levels of gaping, texture and liquid holding capacity. Pigment concentration was lower in vegetable oil diets. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F926https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F926Fri, 25 Oct 2013 13:39:14 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Water: Use no tillage instead of reduced tillageWater use (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled study from Spain found that crops used water more efficiently in plots with no tillage, compared to reduced tillage, in one of four comparisons. Water availability (9 studies): Six controlled studies from Spain (five of which were replicated and randomized) found more water in soils with no tillage, compared to reduced tillage, in some or all comparisons. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from Spain found less water in soils with no tillage, compared to reduced tillage, in one of fifteen comparisons. Two replicated, randomized, controlled studies from Australia and Lebanon found similar amounts of water in soils with no tillage or reduced tillage. Pathogens and pesticides (0 studies) Nutrients (0 studies) Sediments (0 studies)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1385https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1385Mon, 15 May 2017 15:53:00 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Pest regulation: Use reduced tillage in arable fieldsPest regulation (0 studies) Crop damage (0 studies) Ratio of natural enemies to pests (0 studies) Pest numbers (9 studies) Weeds (8 studies): Seven replicated, randomized, controlled studies from Italy, Lebanon, Spain, Turkey, and the USA found more weeds in plots with reduced tillage, compared to conventional tillage, in some or all comparisons. One of these studies also found fewer weeds in plots with reduced tillage, compared to conventional tillage, in some comparisons. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from Italy found similar numbers of weeds in plots with reduced tillage or conventional tillage, in all comparisons. Weed species (3 studies): Two replicated, randomized, controlled studies from Spain and Turkey found similar numbers of weed species in plots with reduced tillage or conventional tillage. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found that weed communities had different compositions in plots with reduced tillage, compared to conventional tillage. Diseases and pest insects (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found similar numbers of diseases and pest insects in plots with reduced tillage, compared to conventional tillage. Natural enemy numbers (1 study): One replicated, controlled study from the USA found similar numbers of predatory mites in soils with reduced tillage or conventional tillage.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1399https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1399Fri, 19 May 2017 09:10:54 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands Ten studies evaluated the effects on peatland vegetation of excluding or removing livestock from degraded peatlands. Seven studies were in bogs, two in fens and one in an unspecified peatland. Three studies were based on the same experimental set-up in the UK. Plant community composition (2 studies): Of two replicated, paired, controlled studies in bogs in the UK, one found that excluding sheep had no effect on the development of the plant community. The other found no effect in wetter areas of the bog, but that in drier areas excluding sheep favoured dry moorland plants. Herb cover (9 studies): Seven studies (including six replicated, paired, controlled) in bogs in the UK and Australia and fens in the USA found that excluding or removing livestock typically had no effect on cover of key herb groups. Five of five studies found that excluding livestock typically had no effect on cottongrass cover. Two of two studies reported no effect on sedge cover. However, one before-and-after study in a poor fen in Spain reported that rush cover increased after cattle were excluded (along with other interventions). One site comparison study in Chile found that excluding livestock (along with other interventions) increased overall herb cover, but one replicated, paired, controlled study in bogs in Australia found that excluding livestock had no effect on overall herb cover. Moss cover (6 studies): Five replicated, paired, controlled studies in bogs in the UK and Australia found that excluding livestock typically had no effect on Sphagnum moss cover. Responses sometimes varied between species and sites. Three of the studies in the UK also found no effect on cover of other mosses. One before-and-after study in a poor fen in Spain reported that Sphagnum moss appeared after excluding cattle (and rewetting). Tree/shrub cover (8 studies): Four replicated, paired, controlled studies in bogs in the UK and Australia found that excluding livestock had no effect on shrub cover (specifically heather or a heathland community). One replicated, paired, controlled study in a bog in the UK found that excluding sheep had no effect on heather cover in wetter areas, but increased heather cover in drier areas. Three studies (including two site comparisons) in bogs in the UK, fens in the USA and a peatland in Chile found that excluding or removing livestock increased shrub cover. Vegetation structure (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled study in a bog in the UK found that excluding sheep increased total vegetation, shrub and bryophyte biomass but had no effect on biomass of grass-like herbs. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1734https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1734Mon, 27 Nov 2017 21:21:00 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Remove upper layer of peat/soil (without planting) Ten studies evaluated the effects of removing the upper layer of peat or soil (without planting afterwards) on peatland vegetation. Nine studies were in fens or fen meadows and one was in an unspecified peatland. Plant community composition (6 studies): Five studies (including one replicated, randomized, paired, controlled) in a peatland in the USA and fens or fen meadows in the Netherlands and Poland reported that plots stripped of topsoil developed plant communities with a different composition to those in unstripped peatlands. In one study, the effect of stripping was not separated from the effect of rewetting. Two studies in fen meadows in Germany and Poland reported that the depth of soil stripping affected plant community development. Characteristic plants (5 studies): Four studies in fen meadows in Germany and the Netherlands, and a peatland in the USA, reported that stripping soil increased cover of wetland-characteristic or peatland-characteristic plants plants after 4–13 years. In the Netherlands, the effect of stripping was not separated from the effect of rewetting. One replicated site comparison study in fens in Belgium and the Netherlands found that stripping soil increased fen-characteristic plant richness. Herb cover (4 studies): Three studies (including one replicated, paired, controlled) in fens or fen meadows in Germany, the UK and Poland found that stripping soil increased cover of rushes, reeds or sedges after 2–6 years. However, one controlled study in a fen meadow in the Netherlands reported that stripping soil had no effect on sedge or bentgrass cover after five years. Two controlled studies in a fen meadow in the Netherlands and a fen in the UK found that stripping soil reduced purple moor grass cover for 2–5 years. Vegetation structure (3 studies): Two studies in fens or fen meadows in the Netherlands and Belgium found that stripping soil reduced vegetation biomass (total or herbs) for up to 18 years. One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in a peatland in the USA found that stripping soil had no effect on vegetation biomass after four years. Overall plant richness/diversity (6 studies): Three studies (including one replicated, paired, controlled) in fens or fen meadows in the UK, Belgium and the Netherlands reported that stripping soil increased total plant species richness over 2–18 years. In one study, the effect of stripping was not separated from the effect of rewetting. One replicated, controlled study in a fen in Poland found that stripping soil had no effect on plant species richness after three years. One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in a peatland in the USA found that stripping soil increased plant species richness and diversity, after four years, in one field but decreased it in another. One replicated study in a fen meadow in Poland reported that plant species richness increased over time, after stripping soil. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1809https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1809Tue, 28 Nov 2017 08:31:06 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Introduce seeds of peatland herbs Ten studies evaluated the effects, on peatland vegetation, of introducing seeds of herbaceous peatland plants. Seven studies were in fens or fen meadows, two in bogs and one in unspecified peatland. Germination (2 studies): Two replicated studies reported that some planted herb seeds germinated. In a bog in Germany three of four species germinated, but in a fen in the USA only one of seven species germinated. Characteristic plants (3 studies): Three studies (two controlled) in fen meadows in Germany and a peatland in China reported that wetland-characteristic or peatland-characteristic plants colonized plots where herb seeds were sown (sometimes along with other interventions). Herb cover (4 studies): Three before-and-after studies (one also replicated, randomized, paired, controlled) in a bog in New Zealand, fen meadows in Switzerland and a peatland in China reported that plots sown with herb seeds developed cover of the sown herbs (and in New Zealand, greater cover than unsown plots). In China, the effect of sowing was not separated from the effects of other interventions. One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in a fen in the USA found that plots sown with herb (and shrub) seeds developed similar herb cover to plots that were not sown. Overall vegetation cover (3 studies): Of three replicated, controlled studies, one in a fen in the USA found that sowing herb (and shrub) seeds increased total vegetation cover. One study in a bog in New Zealand found that sowing herb seeds had no effect on total vegetation cover. One study in a fen meadow in Poland found that the effect of adding seed-rich hay depended on other treatments applied to plots. Overall plant richness/diversity (4 studies): Two replicated, controlled studies in fens in the USA and Poland found that sowing herb seeds had no effect on plant species richness (total or vascular). Two replicated, controlled, before-and-after studies in a bog in New Zealand and a fen meadow in Poland each reported inconsistent effects of herb sowing on total plant species richness. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1823https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1823Tue, 28 Nov 2017 08:46:08 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Amphibians: Freeze sperm or eggs for future useFor summarised evidence see Smith, R.K. and Sutherland, W.J. (2014) Amphibian conservation: Global evidence for the effects of interventions. Exeter, Pelagic Publishing. Key messages and summaries are available here: http://www.www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1899https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1899Fri, 19 Jan 2018 15:11:58 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Scare or otherwise deter mammals from human-occupied areas to reduce human-wildlife conflict Ten studies evaluated the effects of scaring or otherwise deterring mammals from residential areas to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Six studies were in the USA, three were in Canada and one was in Tanzania. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES) OTHER (10 STUDIES) Human-wildlife conflict (10 studies): Two of four studies (including one randomized and controlled study) in the USA, found that a range of noise and pain deterrents did not prevent black bears from returning to urban areas or other human-occupied sites. The other two studies found that such actions did deter them from seeking food at human-occupied sites. Two of three studies, in the USA and Canada, found that chasing nuisance black bears with dogs and chasing elk with people or dogs caused them to stay away longer or remain further from human occupied areas. The other study found that attempts to scare coyotes did not cause them to avoid human occupied areas. A before-and-after study in Canada found that an electric fence prevented polar bear entry to a compound. A study in Canada found that chemical and acoustic repellents did not deter polar bears from baits in most cases. A replicated study in Tanzania found that drones caused African savanna elephants to quickly leave residential areas. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2347https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2347Fri, 22 May 2020 14:14:50 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Exclude or remove livestock from historically grazed freshwater marshes Ten studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of excluding or removing livestock from historically grazed freshwater marshes. Seven studies were in the USA, two were in Morocco and one was in Australia. In all 10 studies the focal livestock included cattle (mixed with sheep in the two studies in Morocco). Two studies in the USA were based on the same experimental set-up, and the two studies in Morocco shared some study sites. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (4 studies): Two site comparison studies in Morocco and the USA reported that marshes/pools fenced to exclude livestock for 3–30 years contained a different overall plant community to grazed sites. In the USA, the precise effect depended on the time since exclusion. Two replicated, randomized, paired, controlled studies in marshes in Australia and the USA found that fencing to exclude cattle typically had no significant effect on the overall plant community composition after 1–14 years. One of the studies also found that the plant community in fenced and grazed marshes was of similar quality, relative to pristine local marshes. Relative abundance (3 studies): Of three replicated, randomized, paired, controlled studies that reported data on the relative abundance of plant groups, two studies (based on one experimental set-up) in the USA found that ephemeral pools fenced to exclude cattle for 1–10 years had similar or greater cover of grasses relative to forbs than pools that remained grazed. The other study, also in the USA, found that the relative abundance of forbs, grass-like plants and shrubs was similar in marshes fenced to exclude cattle for 1–3 years and marshes that remained grazed. Overall richness/diversity (6 studies): Four replicated studies (two also randomized, paired, controlled) in the USA, Morocco and Australia found that marshes/pools fenced to exclude cattle, for 1–30 years, typically had similar overall plant species richness to sites that remained grazed. One of the studies found that the same was true for overall plant diversity. One replicated, site comparison study of ephemeral pools in Morocco found that pools fenced to exclude livestock for >30 years had similar (in a dry year) or greater (in a wet year) plant species richness compared to pools that remained grazed. One site comparison study in the USA found that marshes fenced to exclude cattle for 3–13 years contained fewer plant species than grazed marshes, and had similar or lower plant diversity. Characteristic plant richness/diversity (1 study): One site comparison study of ephemeral pools in Morocco found that pools fenced to exclude livestock for >30 years contained a similar number of wetland-characteristic plant species to pools that remained grazed. Native/non-target richness/diversity (3 studies): Of three replicated, randomized, paired, controlled studies that reported data on native plant species richness, two studies (based on one experimental set-up) in the USA found that fencing ephemeral pools to exclude cattle for 1–10 years typically reduced native plant species richness. The other study, also in the USA, found that native plant species richness was similar in marshes fenced to exclude cattle for 1–3 years and marshes that remained grazed. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (3 studies): Two replicated, site comparison studies in the USA and Morocco found that ponds/pools fenced to exclude cattle for >10 years contained more vegetation than sites that remained grazed. This was measured in terms of emergent cover around pond margins or peak above-ground biomass in ephemeral pools. One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in Australia found that marshes fenced to exclude cattle for ≤4 years contained similar above-ground vegetation biomass to marshes that remained grazed. Characteristic plant abundance (1 study): One site comparison study of ephemeral pools in Morocco found that the overall abundance of wetland-characteristic plant species was greater in pools fenced to exclude livestock for >30 years than in pools that remained grazed. Herb abundance (1 study): One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after study in the USA found that fencing pastures to exclude cattle typically increased herb cover in wetlands along creeks, but had no significant effect on herb cover within spring wetlands. Individual species abundance (2 studies): Two replicated, randomized, paired, controlled studies in freshwater marshes in Australia and the USA quantified the effect of this action on the abundance of individual plant species (see original papers for data). VEGETATION STRUCTURE Visual obstruction (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA found that ponds fenced to exclude cattle for >10 years had greater horizontal vegetation cover, around their margins, than ponds that remained grazed. Height (2 studies): Two replicated studies (one also randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after) in the USA found that fencing ponds to exclude cattle, for 1–3 or >10 years, increased the height of vegetation around their margins. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2966https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2966Thu, 25 Mar 2021 14:14:57 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Actively manage water level: freshwater marshes Ten studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of active water level management in freshwater marshes. Eight studies were in the USA. One study was in Cameroon and one study was in the Netherlands. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One before-and-after study in the USA found that directly pumping water into drained marshes and wet meadows generated plant communities characteristic of wetter conditions. This change was reversed in some plots when the pump output was moved further away from the focal wetlands. Relative abundance (2 studies): One replicated, randomized, controlled study of freshwater marshes in the USA reported that irrigated and non-irrigated marshes supported a similar relative abundance of the most common plant species. One before-and-after study on a floodplain in Cameroon found that the relative abundance of some key plant species changed over four years after restoring wet-season flooding. There was also an increase in the cover of perennial relative to annual herbs. Overall richness/diversity (4 studies): One before-and-after study of a marsh/swamp in the USA found that overall plant diversity was higher in the autumn following a managed flood/drawdown than in the autumn before. Two before-and-after studies of marshes and wet meadows in the USA reported that plant species richness and/or diversity declined over 5–6 years of water level management (fluctuation or water addition). One study in the USA simply reported the number of plant species that colonized a floodplain, over three weeks after lowering the river level. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (3 studies): One study of riparian moist/wet meadows in the USA reported that vascular plant biomass increased in two of three meadow types, over the second year of artificially augmented streamflow. Meanwhile, vascular plant cover declined in two of three meadow types. Two studies in the Netherlands and the USA simply quantified overall vegetation abundance after 1–9 growing seasons of active water level management (sometimes along with other interventions). Characteristic plant abundance (2 studies): Two before-and-after studies of marshes and wet meadows in the USA reported increases in abundance of some individual wetland- or habitat-characteristic species over 5–6 years of water level management (fluctuation or water addition). Moss abundance (1 study): One study of riparian moist/wet meadows in the USA reported that moss cover did not significantly change in two of three meadow types, over the second year of artificially augmented streamflow. It declined in the other meadow type. Individual species abundance (7 studies): Seven studies quantified the effect of this action on the abundance of individual plant species. For example, one before-and-after study of a marsh/swamp in the USA reported mixed effects of a managed flood/drawdown on species cover, including increased cover of Pacific willow Salix lucida and reduced cover of reed canarygrass Phalaris arundinacea. One controlled study of freshwater marshes in the USA found that irrigated marshes developed a greater biomass of pink smartweed Polygonum pensylvanicum, after one growing season, than marshes that were left dry. VEGETATION STRUCTURE Vegetation height (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled study of freshwater marshes in the USA reported that four common plant species were taller in irrigated than non-irrigated marshes. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3038https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3038Thu, 01 Apr 2021 10:02:54 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Actively manage water level: brackish/salt marshes Ten studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of active water level management in brackish/salt marshes. Six studies were in the USA. There was overlap in the sites used in two of these studies. Two studies were in Canada and based on the same experimental set-up. One study was in France and one was in Tunisia. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community types (1 study): One before-and-after study of a lakeshore brackish/salt marsh in Tunisia reported an increase in coverage of bulrush-dominated vegetation over nine years of freshwater releases into the lake (to increase its level and restore winter flooding of the marsh). Community composition (3 studies): One replicated, paired, controlled, before-and-after study of brackish marshes in France reported that artificially flooded marshes developed different plant communities, over five years, to fields with unmanaged flooding. One before-and-after, site comparison study of brackish/salt marshes in the USA reported that the overall plant community composition changed more, over four years, in a marsh directly irrigated with treated wastewater than in downstream marshes. One replicated, paired, site comparison study of brackish/salt marshes in the USA reported that that marshes in which water levels were drawn down each spring/autumn (along with disking soils) shared only 24–34% of plant species with marshes that were not drawn down (or disked). Overall richness/diversity (5 studies): Two replicated, site comparison studies of brackish/salt marshes in the USA found that marshes in which water levels were managed (sometimes along with other interventions) had similar plant species richness and/or diversity to marshes without water level management. One replicated, site comparison study of brackish and salt marshes in the USA reported that marshes in which water levels were managed had similar or higher plant species richness, in winter, than marshes without water level management. One before-and-after, site comparison study of brackish/salt marshes in the USA reported that plant species richness increased, over four years, in marshes directly irrigated with treated wastewater – but only to similar levels as in downstream marshes. One replicated, paired, controlled, before-and-after study of brackish marshes in France reported that the effects of artificial flooding on plant species richness depended on whether the marshes were grazed. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (2 studies): Two replicated, site comparison studies of brackish and salt marshes in the USA reported that marshes in which water levels were managed typically had similar overall vegetation cover to marshes without water level management. One of the studies also reported that cover of standing dead vegetation was higher in the managed marshes than in the unmanaged marshes. Individual species abundance (6 studies): Six studies quantified the effect of this action on the abundance of individual plant species. For example, four replicated, site comparison studies of brackish and salt marshes in the USA reported mixed effects of water level management on the abundance of saltmeadow cordgrass Spartina patens. One replicated, paired, controlled, before-and-after study of brackish marshes in France reported that the effects of artificial flooding on the cover of individual plant species depended on the flooding (and grazing) regime. VEGETATION STRUCTURE OTHER Germination/emergence (2 studies): Two replicated studies of brackish marshes in Canada reported that seedlings of wetland plants germinated in the spring/summer following drawdowns, after a period of deep flooding. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3039https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3039Thu, 01 Apr 2021 10:03:10 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance: brackish/salt marshes Ten studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of using prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance in brackish/salt marshes. Seven studies were in the USA. Two studies were in Argentina but based on the same experimental set-up. One study was in Guadeloupe. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled study in a salt marsh in Argentina reported that burned plots had a different overall plant community composition to unburned plots, five months after burning. The same was true in one of two comparisons 17 months after burning. Overall richness/diversity (5 studies): Three studies (including one replicated, paired, controlled) in brackish marshes in the USA and Guadeloupe reported that burning had no significant effect on overall plant species richness, measured approximately 10 weeks to 2 years after the latest burn. In one of the studies, the effects of burning and legal protection were not separated. One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after study in brackish marshes in the USA reported that burning typically had no significant effect on changes in plant species richness over two years. One replicated, paired, controlled study in a salt marsh in Argentina reported that burned plots had greater overall plant species richness and diversity than unburned plots, 5–17 months after burning. Characteristic plant richness/diversity (1 study): One study of a coastal marsh in the USA reported that over three years after restoration – involving a prescribed burn along with restoration of tidal exchange – the number of salt-tolerant plant species increased, whilst the number of freshwater plant species decreased. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (5 studies): Three replicated studies (one also randomized, paired, controlled) in brackish marshes in the USA found that overall vegetation biomass was lower in burned than unburned plots, 10 weeks or 1 year after the latest burn. One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after study in alkali marshes in the USA found that a single prescribed burn had no significant effect on overall vegetation biomass: there was a similar change over two years in burned and unburned plots. One replicated, paired, controlled study in a salt marsh in Argentina found that the effect of a single prescribed burn on the frequency of seedlings depended on the time since burning, but that seedlings were more frequent in burned than unburned plots after 9–12 months. Characteristic plant abundance (1 study): One study of a coastal marsh in the USA found that over three years after restoration – involving a prescribed burn along with restoration of tidal exchange – the cover of salt-tolerant plant species increased, whilst the cover of freshwater plant species decreased. Individual species abundance (7 studies): Seven studies quantified the effect of this action on the abundance of individual plant species. For example, five studies quantified the effects of prescribed burning on the abundance of dominant cordgrasses Spartina sp. in brackish and salt marshes in the USA and Argentina. Two replicated, paired, controlled studies found that cordgrass abundance (biomass or cover) was lower in burned than unburned plots, between 10 weeks and 17 months after the latest burn. However, one replicated, paired, site comparison study found that burning typically had no significant effect on cordgrass biomass or density after 2–8 months. One replicated, before-and-after study found that cordgrass biomass was lower, but cover greater, one year after burning than before. One study reported mixed effects on cordgrass cover across two marshes. VEGETATION STRUCTURE Height (2 studies): Two studies (one controlled, one site comparison) in brackish marshes in the USA and Guadeloupe reported that the height of dominant grass-like plants was lower in burned than unburned areas for up to 1–2 years after the latest burn. The study in the USA reported recovery, to a slightly greater height than in unburned areas, after three years. The study in Guadeloupe also reported that the tallest trees in burned marshes were shorter than the tallest trees in unburned marshes. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3055https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3055Fri, 02 Apr 2021 08:57:38 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Transplant or replace wetland soil: freshwater marshes Ten studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of transplanting wetland soil to restore or create freshwater marshes. Nine studies were in the USA. One study was in Guam. Two studies were in the same region but used different sites. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (3 studies): Two replicated, controlled studies in rewetted marshes in the USA found that areas amended with wetland soil contained a plant community characteristic of wetter conditions than unamended plots after one growing season – but not after two. One replicated, randomized, controlled study in a recently excavated marsh in the USA found that amended and unamended plots contained a plant community of similar overall wetness after both one and two growing seasons. Overall richness/diversity (10 studies): Eight studies (including four at least replicated and controlled) in freshwater marshes in the USA reported that areas amended with wetland soil had greater plant richness and/or diversity than unamended areas and/or nearby natural marshes. One replicated, paired, controlled study in rewetted freshwater marshes in the USA found that plots amended with sieved marsh soil contained a similar number of wetland plant species to unamended plots, after 1–2 growing seasons. One before-and-after study of freshwater pool in Guam simply quantified plant species richness one year after adding wetland soil (along with other interventions). Characteristic plant richness/diversity (1 study): One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in a freshwater marsh in the USA reported that plots amended with wetland soil developed a greater richness of wetland-characteristic plant species than unamended plots, at the end of the growing season. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (6 studies): Six controlled studies in freshwater marshes in the USA reported that plots amended with wetland soil typically contained more vegetation overall than unamended plots, after 1–2 growing seasons. This was true for cover and biomass, but not stem density. Individual species abundance (7 studies): Seven studies (including one replicated, randomized, paired, controlled, site comparison) in freshwater marshes, meadows and pools in the USA and Guam quantified the effect of this action (sometimes along with others) on the abundance of individual plant species. Results were mixed and likely depended on the composition of the donor wetland. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3270https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3270Sat, 10 Apr 2021 15:48:02 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use prescribed burning in combination with vegetation cutting Ten studies evaluated the effects of using prescribed burning in combination with vegetation cutting on reptile populations. Eight studies were in the USA and two were in Australia. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (5 STUDIES) Community composition (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled, before-and-after study in the USA found that cutting vegetation prior to burning resulted in reptile assemblages becoming similar to areas with more pristine habitat and a history of frequent fires. Richness/diversity (5 studies): Four of five replicated studies (including three randomized, controlled studies) in Australia and the USA found that areas managed by burning in combination with vegetation cutting had similar reptile species richness compared to either burning only, cutting only or areas that were unmanaged. The other study found that areas of woodland managed by burning and vegetation thinning had higher reptile species richness than unmanaged areas. POPULATION RESPONSE (9 STUDIES) Abundance (9 studies): Four of nine replicated studies (including five randomized, controlled studies) in the USA and Australia found that areas that were managed by burning in combination with vegetation cutting had a higher abundance of overall reptiles, lizards, eastern fence lizards and five-lined skinks compared to areas that were either only burned or unmanaged. Three studies found a similar abundance of overall reptiles, snakes and turtles compared to either burning only, cutting only or unmanaged. Four studies found mixed effects of burning in combination with vegetation cutting on the abundance of reptiles and six-lined racerunners. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3655https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3655Fri, 10 Dec 2021 09:25:56 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Remove or control predators using fencing and/or aerial nets Ten studies evaluated the effects on reptile populations of removing or controlling predators using fencing and/or aerial nets. Five studies were in Australia, two were in each of the USA and New Zealand and one was in Spain. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (1 STUDY) Richness/diversity (1 study): One controlled study in Australia found mixed effects of fencing in combination with removal of invasive mammals on reptile species richness. POPULATION RESPONSE (10 STUDIES) Abundance (5 studies): Three of four studies (including one paired sites, controlled, before-and-after study) in Australia found mixed effects of fencing or fencing and removal of invasive mammals on the abundance of reptiles. The other study found that small lizards were more abundant inside fenced areas than outside fenced areas. This study also found mixed effects of fencing on the abundance of skinks and geckos. One replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in Australia found that in areas with fencing the abundance of reptiles increased more over time than in areas with no fencing. Reproductive success (2 studies): One of two replicated, controlled studies (including one randomized study) in the USA and Spain found that in areas with fencing in combination with predator removal, gopher tortoise nests were predated less frequently than in areas with no corrals or fencing with predator removal. The other study found mixed effects of fencing on predation of artificial western Hermann’s tortoise nests. Survival (4 studies): Two of three studies (including one replicated, randomized, controlled study) in New Zealand and the USA found that in areas with fencing in combination with predator removal, more gopher tortoise hatchlings survived for a year than in areas with no fencing or predator removal or survival of captive-bred Otago skinks released into an enclosure was higher when mice had been eradicated compared to when skinks were released in the presence of mice. The other study found that use of predator exclosure fences did not result in increased survival of McCann’s skink compared to areas without exclosures. One replicated, randomized, controlled study in the USA found that in enclosures designed to exclude small mammals with additional fencing and overhead netting, a similar number of gopher tortoise hatchlings were predated by vertebrate predators compared to in unmodified enclosures. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3677https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3677Fri, 10 Dec 2021 13:52:47 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Release captive-bred reptiles into the wild: Snakes & lizards Ten studies evaluated the effects on reptile populations of releasing captive-bred snakes and lizards into the wild. Three studies were in New Zealand, two were in the USA and one was in each of the Galápagos, Spain, Australia and Canada and one was global. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (10 STUDIES) Abundance (2 studies): One global review found that when using recruitment to the adult population as a measure of success, 32% of reptile releases (releases of captive individuals were 7% of total projects) were successful. One review in New Zealand found that 13% of lizard releases (some involving captive-bred animals) found evidence of populations growth Reproductive success (3 studies): Three studies (including two reviews) in the USA and New Zealand found evidence of breeding following release in one of two captive-bred populations of cornsnakes, one captive-bred population of Otago skinks and in at least 16 lizard mitigation translocations, some of which involved captive-bred animals. Survival (9 studies): One replicated, controlled study in Spain found that released large psammodromus lizards had similar annual survival compared to resident lizards. Two of six studies (including one replicated study and two reviews) in the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Canada reported that 13% of 40 indigo snakes were re-sighted at least once during 5–8 years following release or that 58% of 12 Otago skinks survived at least 18 months. Two studies found that zero of nine and 27 individuals survived more than 143 days or beyond their first hibernation. The other two studies found that one of two and five of 53 releases (only some of which involved captive-bred animals) failed completely (no individuals survived). One study in New Zealand found that survival of captive-bred Otago skinks released into an enclosure was higher when mice had been eradicated compared to when skinks were released in the presence of mice. One replicated study in the Galápagos found that while releases were ongoing over a decade (183 released in total), 17–32 Galápagos land iguanas were recaptured each year. Condition (1 study): One controlled study in New Zealand found that body condition of captive-reared Otago skinks was higher than wild skinks, but sprint speed was lower. BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY) Behaviour change (1 study): One replicated, controlled study in Spain found that released large psammodromus lizards moved between habitat fragments more frequently than resident lizards but showed similar behaviour in three other measures. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3771https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3771Wed, 15 Dec 2021 11:29:15 +0000