Conservation Evidence: Evidence Data

Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Raise water levels in ditches or grassland Seven studies from Denmark, the Netherlands and the UK (two replicated controlled studies and two before-and-after studies) found that raising water levels in ditches or grassland was associated with increased bird numbers, breeding bird numbers, plant species that favour wet conditions, and invertebrate numbers or biomass in agricultural landscapes. Two replicated studies from the Netherlands and the UK found that raising water levels resulted in a net loss of plant species and did not affect lapwing foraging rate. A review found three studies reporting that re-wetting soils on old arable fields is not an effective method of reducing nutrient levels and restoring species-rich grassland. A replicated study from the UK found that unflooded pastures contained a high biomass of soil macroinvertebrates of importance to breeding wading birds. A controlled, randomized study from the Netherlands found that raising the water level resulted in a more rapid establishment of species typical of wet grassland, than vegetation management. A review of agri-environment schemes from the UK found studies that suggested more expensive agri-environment scheme options for wetland habitats, such as controlling water levels, were more effective at providing good habitat for wading birds than easier-to-implement options. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F121https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F121Tue, 01 Nov 2011 21:14:13 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Reduce grazing intensity Nine studies from the USA and the UK, one replicated and controlled, found increases in populations of some species on fields with reduced grazing, or increased use of such fields by birds. Three of the studies used multiple interventions at once. Five studies from Europe, four replicated and controlled, found that some or all species were no more numerous on fields with reduced grazing, compared to intensively-grazed fields. One paired sites study from the UK found that black grouse Tetrao tetrix populations increased at reduced grazing sites (and declined elsewhere), but that large areas of reduced grazing had lower densities of female grouse. A before-and-after study from the USA found that the number of species on plots with reduced grazing increased over time. A replicated, controlled study from four countries in Europe found no differences in the number of species on sites with low-intensity or high-intensity grazing. One replicated trial in the UK found that some bird groups preferred grassland short in winter (grazing effect simulated by mowing), and others preferred it long (unmown to simulate removal of livestock). Frequency and timing of the simulated grazing did not alter this preference. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F220https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F220Tue, 17 Jul 2012 13:28:12 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Employ grazing in natural grasslands Five of 12 studies from the USA and Canada, four replicated, found that some species studied were found at higher densities on grazed than ungrazed sites. Eight studies from the USA, Canada and France, six replicated, found that some or all species studied were found at lower densities on grazed sites compared to ungrazed sites or those under other management, or that there were no differences. Two controlled studies from the USA and Canada, one replicated, found that duck nesting success was higher on grazed than ungrazed sites. Two studies from the USA found that songbird nesting success was lower on grazed than ungrazed sites. Three replicated and controlled (one randomised) studies from the USA and Canada found that grazing had little or no effect on nesting success in a variety of species. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F348https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F348Sun, 29 Jul 2012 14:35:22 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success Eight studies from across the world, including a literature review from across the world found evidence for positive effects of calcium supplementation on several bird species. Positive effects included lower incidence of bone disease, higher fledging succes, larger broods, higher quality eggs or chicks and better physical condition of female parents. Not all species reacted similarly. Six studies including a literature review did not find any evidence for increased reproductive success in at least one of the species supplied with supplementary calcium. One replicated study from Europe found that birds took calcium supplied, and birds at polluted sites took more than those at cleaner sites. The effects on fitness were not monitored. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F559https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F559Sun, 23 Sep 2012 15:19:49 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees Six of twelve studies (including two replicated, randomized, controlled studies) in Japan and the USA found that thinning trees in forests increased the density of young trees. One study found that thinning decreased the density of young trees. Five found no effect or mixed effects on the density of young trees. One replicated, controlled study in the USA found no effect of thinning on the density of oak acorns. One controlled study in Peru found that thinning increased the growth rate of young trees. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1210https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1210Thu, 19 May 2016 15:49:33 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use wire fencing to exclude large native herbivores Five of ten studies (including two replicated, randomized, controlled studies) in Australia, Bhutan, Canada, France, Portugal and the USA found that using wire fencing to exclude large herbivores increased the cover and size of understory plants. Six studies found no effect of wire fencing on the cover, seed density, species richness or diversity of understory plants. Two of the above studies and one paired-sites study in Ireland examined the effect of using wire fencing to exclude large herbivores on young trees. One found it increased the biomass, one found it decreased the density of young trees and one found mixed effects depending on the species. Two replicated, controlled studies in the USA found that using wire fencing to exclude large herbivores increased tree density. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1230https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1230Mon, 23 May 2016 10:55:52 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Pest regulation: Plant or maintain ground cover in orchards or vineyardsPest regulation (3 studies): One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found that more leafhopper eggs were parasitized in plots with cover crops, compared to bare fallows, in one of six comparisons. Two replicated, randomized, controlled studies from the USA found inconsistent differences or no differences in the parasitism of leafhopper eggs between plots with or without ground cover. Crop damage (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found that more grapes were damaged by pests in plots with cover crops, compared to bare fallows, in some comparisons. Ratio of natural enemies to pests (0 studies) Pest numbers (12 studies) Weeds (2 studies): One replicated, randomized, controlled study in an olive orchard in Spain found fewer weeds in plots with cover crops, compared to bare soil, in one of two comparisons. One replicated, controlled study from a vineyard in the USA found more weeds in plots with cover crops, compared to bare soil, in one of nine comparisons. Implementation options (4 studies): Three studies from vineyards in the USA found different numbers of weeds or weed species in plots with different types of ground cover, in some or all comparisons. One study from the USA found similar numbers of weeds in vine rows with or without cover crops. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found that plant diversity decreased over time in plots without tillage, but increased in plots with tillage. This study found that tillage had no effects on the number of plant species and had inconsistent effects on plant biomass. Insects (5 studies): Two replicated, controlled studies (one randomized) from the USA found fewer leafhoppers in plots with cover crops, in some comparisons. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found more leafhoppers, in some comparisons. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found similar numbers of leafhoppers. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found more navel orangeworm moths in plots with resident vegetation, compared to tilled soil, in one of two comparisons. Implementation options (2 studies): Two studies from the USA found fewer pests in plots with mown ground cover, compared to unmown ground cover or ground cover before mowing. Mammals (1 study) Implementation options (1 study): One study from the USA found more gophers in plots with clover, compared to other cover crops. Natural enemy numbers (6 studies): Four replicated, controlled studies (three randomized) from Spain and the USA found more natural enemies in plots with ground cover, compared to plots without ground cover, in some or all comparisons. One replicated, controlled study from the USA found fewer parasitoids in plots with ground cover, in some comparisons. One replicated, randomized, controlled study from the USA found inconsistent differences in the numbers of spiders between plots with or without ground cover. One of these studies found no difference in the number of spider species between plots with or without ground cover, and another one found no difference in the composition of spider communities. Implementation options (1 study): One study from the USA found more natural enemies in plots with mown cover crops, one week after mowing, compared to before mowing. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1395https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1395Mon, 15 May 2017 16:22:21 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only One study in Tanzania found that a chimpanzee population increased after supplementary feeding for two months immediately after reintroduction, alongside other interventions. One before-and-after study in Brazil found that a golden lion tamarin population declined after one year following supplementary feeding, alongside other interventions. One study in Brazil found that an abandoned infant muriqui was retrieved by its mother and rejoined the wild group after supplementary feeding, alongside other interventions. Four studies in Brazil, Madagascar, and South Africa found that only a minority of reintroduced primates survived after supplementary feeding, alongside other interventions. One study in Guinea found that the majority of introduced chimpanzees survived for at least 27 months following supplementary feeding, alongside other interventions.. Three studies in Gabon, South Africa and Vietnam found that a majority of primates survived reintroduction while being supplimentry fed alongside other interventions. Two studies in Gabon and the Republic of Congo found that the majority of lowland gorillas survived for at least nine months to four years after provision of supplementary food, alongside other interventions. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1528https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1528Thu, 19 Oct 2017 10:13:06 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals One study in Tanzania found that a reintroduced population of chimpanzees increased in size after reintroduction as single/multiple individuals, alongside other interventions. One study in Senegal found that an infant chimpanzee was reunited with its mother after reintroduction, alongside other interventions. Two studies in Brazil and Thailand found that populations of reintroduced primates declined after reintroduction as single/multiple individuals, alongside other interventions. Four studies in French Guiana, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam found that a minority of primates survived after between two months and one year after reintroduction as single/multiple individuals, alongside other interventions. One study in Vietnam found that half of introduced primates survived after two months. One study in Brazil found that an abandoned infant muriqui was reunited with its mother after reintroduction as single/multiple individuals, alongside other interventions. One study in Indonesia found that Bornean agile gibbons had similar behaviour and diet to wild populations after reintroduction as single/multiple individuals, alongside other interventions. One controlled study in Malaysia found that a reintroduced population of orangutans declined in size after reintroduction, alongside other interventions. One study in Malaysia found that 98% of orangutans survived release after reintroduction, alongside other interventions. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1589https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1589Fri, 20 Oct 2017 13:18:43 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Increase number of livestock Two site comparison studies in the UK found that cover of common heather declined in sites with a high density of livestock. One site comparison in the Netherlands found that dwarf shrub cover was lower in grazed areas than in ungrazed areas. One before-and-after study in Belgium found that grazing increased cover of heather. One site comparison in France found that areas grazed by cattle had higher cover of non-ericaceous shrubs, but lower cover of ericaceous shrubs. One before-and-after study in the Netherlands found that increasing the number of livestock resulted in an increase in the number of common heather and cross-leaved heath seedlings. One randomized, replicated, paired, controlled study in the USA found that increasing the number of livestock did not alter shrub cover. One replicated, site comparison study and one before-and-after study in the UK and Netherlands found that increasing grazing had mixed effects on shrub and heather cover. Three site comparisons in France, the Netherlands and Greece found that grazed areas had a higher number of plant species than ungrazed areas. One before-and-after study in Belgium found that the number of plant species did not change after the introduction of grazing. One replicated, before-and-after study in the Netherlands found a decrease in the number of plant species. One before-and-after study in the Netherlands found that increasing the number of livestock resulted in a decrease in vegetation height. One replicated, before-and-after trial in France found that grazing to control native woody species increased vegetation cover in one of five sites but did not increase vegetation cover in four of five sites. A systematic review of four studies in North Western Europe found that increased grazing intensity increased the cover of grass species, relative to heather species. One before-and-after study and two site comparisons in the Netherlands and France found areas with high livestock density had higher grass and sedge cover than ungrazed areas. One randomized, replicated, paired, controlled study in the USA found that increasing the number of livestock reduced grass and herb cover. One before-and-after study in Spain found that increasing the number of ponies in a heathland site reduced grass height. One replicated, site comparison in the UK and one replicated before-and-after study in the Netherlands found that increasing cattle had mixed effects on grass and herbaceous species. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1628https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1628Sun, 22 Oct 2017 11:21:34 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add mosses to peatland surface Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of adding mosses or moss fragments onto peatland surfaces. Eleven were in bogs and two in were in fens. One study was a continuation of an earlier study. Three of the studies involved sowing moss in gel beads. Sphagnum moss cover (12 studies): Eleven studies in bogs in the UK, Canada, Finland and Germany and fens the USA reported that Sphagnum moss was present, after 1–4 growing seasons, in at least some plots sown with Sphagnum. Cover ranged from negligible to >90%. Six of these studies were controlled and found that Sphagnum cover or abundance was higher in sown than unsown plots. One of the studies reported that Sphagnum only survived in one of three sites, and only when plots were mulched. One additional study in Canada found that adding Sphagnum to bog pools did not affect Sphagnum Other moss cover (4 studies): Four studies (including one replicated, randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after) in bogs in Canada and fens in Sweden and the USA reported that mosses or bryophytes other than Sphagnum were present, after 2–3 growing seasons, in at least some plots sown with moss fragments. Cover ranged from negligible to 76%. In the fens in Sweden and the USA, moss cover was low (<1%) unless the plots were mulched, shaded or limed. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1821https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F1821Tue, 28 Nov 2017 08:45:38 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Designate a Marine Protected Area with a zonation system of activity restrictions Thirteen studies examined the effects of designating a marine protected area with a zonation system of activity restrictions on subtidal benthic invertebrate populations. Four studies were in the Caribbean Sea (Belize, Mexico), three in the Mediterranean Sea (Italy), one in the Central Pacific Ocean (Ecuador), three in the Bristol Channel and the Irish Sea (UK), one in the Indian Ocean (Australia), and one in the North Atlantic Ocean (Portugal). COMMUNITY RESPONSE (2 STUDIES) Overall community composition (1 study): One site comparison study in the Mediterranean Sea found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, the combined invertebrate and algae species community composition was different at a site prohibiting all fishing compared to sites where some fishing occurs, after six years. Overall species richness/diversity (1 study): One site comparison study in the North Atlantic Ocean found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, sites prohibiting nearly all fishing had similar invertebrate species richness to sites where fishing was mostly allowed, after two years. POPULATION RESPONSE (13 STUDIES) Overall abundance (1 study): One site comparison study in the North Atlantic Ocean found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, abundances of specific invertebrate groups varied between sites prohibiting nearly all fishing and sites where fishing was mostly allowed, after two years. Crustacean abundance (7 studies): Three of seven site comparison studies (two replicated) in the Caribbean Sea, the Central Pacific Ocean, and in the Bristol Channel and the Irish Sea found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, abundance and/or biomass of spiny lobsters increased in a zone closed to all/commercial fishing and were greater than in a zone where fewer fishing restrictions occurred, after four to 20 years depending on the study. One found that sites closed to all fishing had higher abundances of spiny lobsters and slipper lobsters after eight to ten years compared to fished sites. Two found that sites closed to all fishing for six to seven years had more European lobsters than sites where potting was allowed. And one found that abundances of European lobsters, velvet crabs, brown crabs and spider crabs, after one to four years, varied with the levels of protection. Crustacean condition (4 studies): Three of five site comparison studies (one replicated) in the Bristol Channel and the Irish Sea, and in the Caribbean Sea found that, inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, sites prohibiting all fishing for seven years or commercial fishing (duration unspecified) had bigger lobsters compared to fished areas. One found that the sizes of lobsters, velvet crabs, brown crabs and spider crabs varied with the levels of protection, and one study found that the size of spiny lobsters decreased similarly in an area prohibiting all fishing and in an area with fewer restrictions 14 to 20 years after designation of the protected area. Two studies undertaken in the same area found conflicting effects of prohibiting all fishing for six to seven years on disease and injury of lobsters. Echinoderm abundance (2 studies): One of two site comparison studies in the Mediterranean Sea found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, at a site prohibiting all fishing for 17 to 18 years, abundances of two species of sea urchins were higher than at sites allowing the recreational fishing of purple sea urchins. The other one found similar abundance of purple sea urchins inside fully protected sites, sites where some restricted urchin harvest occurs, and unprotected fished sites outside the protected area after five years. Echinoderm condition (2 studies): Two site comparison studies in the Mediterranean Sea found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, sites prohibiting all fishing had bigger sea urchins compared to sites where some restricted urchin harvest occurs and compared to unprotected fished sites outside the protected area, after either four years or 17 to 18 years. Mollusc abundance (3 studies): One replicated, randomized, controlled study in the Indian Ocean found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, abundance of blacklip abalone was higher in sites that had been prohibiting all fishing for five years compared to those prohibiting commercial fishing only. Two site comparison studies in the Caribbean Sea found that inside marine protected areas with a zonation system, abundances of adult queen conch increased over time in a zone closed to all fishing and were greater than in zones with fewer restrictions, but abundances of juvenile conch did not differ or vary differently between zones, after either five to eight years or 14 to 20 years. Mollusc condition (1 study): One site comparison study in the Caribbean Sea found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, the size of queen conch decreased similarly in the area prohibiting all fishing and in the area with fewer restrictions, after 14 to 20 years. Sponge abundance (1 study): One site comparison study in the Mediterranean Sea found that inside a marine protected area with a zonation system, the cover of sponges Cliona was higher at a site prohibiting all fishing for six years compared to sites where some fishing occurred. BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY) Crustacean behaviour (1 study): One site comparison study in the Caribbean Sea found that, inside a marine protected area with a zonation system (year of designation unspecified), 80% of the lobster population occurring in the unfished area remained in the protected unfished area, and thus remained protected. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2230https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2230Tue, 22 Oct 2019 15:21:24 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Rehabilitate injured, sick or weak mammals Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of rehabilitating injured, sick or weak mammals. Four studies were in the UK, three were in Spain, two were in Argentina and one each was in Uganda, Australia, the USA and Brazil. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (12 STUDIES) Survival (11 studies): Five studies, in the UK and Spain, found that varying proportions of European hedgehogs released after being rehabilitated in captivity survived during post-release monitoring periods, which ranged from two weeks to 136 days. Five studies, in Australia, Spain, the USA and Brazil, found that four koalas, an Iberian lynx, a gray wolf, a puma and two brown bears released following rehabilitation in captivity survived for varying durations during monitoring periods, which ranged in length from three months to up to seven years. A study in Argentina found that over half of released rehabilitated and captive-reared giant anteaters survived for at least six months. Condition (2 studies): A study in Uganda found that a snare wound in a white rhinoceros healed after treatment and rehabilitation. A study in the UK found that two of three rehabilitated European hedgehogs lost 12-36% of their body weight after release into the wild. BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY) Behaviour change (1 study): A controlled study in Argentina found that released wild-born rehabilitated giant anteaters were more nocturnal in their activity patterns than captive-bred individuals.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2352https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2352Tue, 26 May 2020 08:46:51 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Reduce intensity of grazing by domestic livestock Thirteen studies evaluated the effects on mammals of reducing the intensity of grazing by domestic livestock. Six studies were in the USA, six were in Europe and one was in China. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (3 STUDIES) Richness/diversity (3 studies): Two of three site comparison or controlled studies, in the USA and Norway, found that reduced livestock grazing intensity was associated with increased species richness of small mammals whilst one study did not find an increase in species richness. POPULATION RESPONSE (13 STUDIES) Abundance (13 studies): Six of nine site comparison or controlled studies (including seven replicated studies), in the USA, Denmark, the UK, China, Netherlands and Norway, found that reductions in livestock grazing intensity were associated with increases in abundances (or proxies of abundances) of small mammals, whilst two studies showed no significant impact of reducing grazing intensity and one study showed mixed results for different species. Two replicated studies (including one controlled and one site comparison study), in the UK and in a range of European countries, found that reducing grazing intensity did not increase numbers of Irish hares or European hares. A controlled, before-and-after study, in the USA found that exclusion of cattle grazing was associated with higher numbers of elk and mule deer. A replicated, site comparison study in the USA found that an absence of cattle grazing was associated with higher numbers of North American beavers. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2408https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2408Fri, 29 May 2020 08:14:23 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Decrease the circumference or diameter of the codend of a trawl net Thirteen studies examined the effects of decreasing the circumference or diameter of a trawl codend on marine fish populations. Four studies were in the Tasman Sea (Australia) and three studies were in the North Sea (UK, Norway). Two studies were in the Adriatic Sea (Italy) and two were in the Baltic Sea (Denmark/ Germany). One study and one review were in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean (Northern Europe). COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES) OTHER (13 STUDIES) Reduction of unwanted catch (6 studies): Two of six replicated, controlled studies (three paired, and one randomized and paired) in the Tasman Sea, Adriatic Sea and Northeast Atlantic Ocean found that bottom trawl nets of smaller circumferences reduced discarded catch of fish in three of five cases and of total discarded catch (fish and invertebrates) in one of two areas, but not overall, compared to standard trawls. Two studies found that reduced circumference codends reduced non-target or discarded fish catch in three of 12 cases and for one of four species. The two other studies found that discarded fish catch was not reduced in smaller circumference codends. Improve size-selectivity of fishing gear (8 studies): Four of eight replicated, controlled studies (one paired) in the North Sea, Adriatic Sea and Baltic Sea, and one review in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, found that decreasing the circumference or diameter of the codend of trawl gear (bottom trawls and seines) improved the size-selectivity of haddock, Atlantic cod, whiting and European hake and red mullet, compared to larger circumferences/diameters. One also found the effect was the same across two codend mesh sizes, and one also found the effect was greater in diamond mesh with the netting orientation turned by 90° compared to standard diamond mesh. Two studies found that a decrease in codend circumference/diameter improved size-selectivity of haddock and saithe in one of two cases, and of one of three fish species. The other study found that a smaller circumference codend reduced size-selectivity of the gear for one of three fish species and was similar for the other two. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2706https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F2706Thu, 17 Dec 2020 14:51:11 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Reprofile/relandscape: freshwater marshes Thirteen studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of reprofiling/relandscaping to restore or create freshwater marshes. Ten studies were in the USA. There was one study in each of France, the UK and Italy. Two pairs of studies used the same or similar sites in Connecticut and Nebraska. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Overall extent (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA reported that emergent vegetation stands covered a smaller area within excavated than natural marshes, 4–5 years after intervention. Community composition (3 studies): Two site comparison studies (one before-and-after, one replicated) in France and the USA reported that reprofiling affected the overall plant community composition. In the USA, the community differed from, but was not intermediate between, natural marshes and degraded marshes. One study in the USA simply quantified the wetness of the overall plant community in an excavated wetland, 1–2 growing seasons after intervention. Overall richness/diversity (9 studies): Three replicated, site comparison studies in the USA found that plant species richness (overall or wetland species) was similar in reprofiled and natural marshes, 1–13 years after intervention. One before-and-after, site comparison study in the UK reported that overall plant species richness was not higher in excavated (and planted) reedbeds, than in a nearby natural reedbed, after seven years. One before-and-after study in France reported that there were more plant species present in a marsh in the two summers after reprofiling than in the summer before. Four studies in the USA and Italy simply reported the number of plant species on wetlands that had been reprofiled or excavated (sometimes along with other interventions), after three months to 23 years. Characteristic plant richness/diversity (1 study): One study in the USA simply reported the number of wetland-characteristic plant species in excavated wetlands, for up to 18 years after intervention. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (8 studies): Two replicated, site comparison studies in the USA reported that overall vegetation cover was similar in reprofiled and natural marshes, 2–13 years after intervention. One of the studies also found that vegetation cover was similar in reprofiled and degraded marshes. Another replicated, site comparison study in the USA reported that vegetation cover within emergent vegetation stands was lower in excavated than natural marshes, 4–5 years after intervention. Five studies in the USA simply quantified overall vegetation abundance on wetlands that had been reprofiled or excavated (sometimes along with other interventions), after three months to 18 years. One of these studies reported an absence of vegetation after two years. Characteristic plant abundance (1 study): One study in the USA simply quantified the abundance of wetland-characteristic plants in an excavated wetland, after 1–2 growing seasons. Bryophyte abundance (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA reported that excavated marshes contained a lower abundance (frequency and biomass) of bryophytes than natural marshes, 2–15 years after intervention. Trees/shrub abundance (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA reported that excavated marshes had lower woody plant cover than natural marshes, after 12–13 years. Individual species abundance (10 studies): Ten studies quantified the effect of this action on the abundance of individual plant species. Two of these studies were replicated site comparisons in the USA, and reported mixed responses. For example, broadleaf cattail Typha latifolia typically had lower cover in excavated than natural marshes in one study, but greater cover in excavated than natural marshes in the other study. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3213https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3213Fri, 09 Apr 2021 09:10:10 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Introduce seeds of non-woody plants: freshwater wetlands Thirteen studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of introducing seeds of emergent, non-woody plants to freshwater wetlands. Eleven studies were in the USA. Two studies were in Australia. Two of the studies were based on exactly the same set of pools. Two sets of studies in the USA and Australia used the same general sites, but different experimental set-ups. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study of created wetlands in the USA reported that wetlands sown with herb (and some shrub) seeds contained a different overall plant community to unsown wetlands, after 1–2 years. Overall richness/diversity (1 study): The same study reported that wetlands sown with herb (and some shrub) seeds had higher plant diversity than unsown wetlands, after 1–2 years. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (4 studies): Three replicated studies (two also randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after) in wetlands in the USA and Australia found that plots sown with herb seeds (and in one study, some shrub seeds) had similar overall vegetation cover to unsown plots, after 1–3 years. One replicated, before-and-after study in the USA reported that vegetation biomass developed over 15 months after sowing mixed herb seeds. Biomass included all the sown species. Characteristic plant abundance (3 studies): Two replicated, controlled studies of recently excavated ephemeral pools in the USA found that native, pool-characteristic species were more common, over seven years, in pools where they were sown than where they were not sown. One of the studies found that this was true when a mixture of characteristic species were densely sown, but not when a single species was sparsely sown. One replicated, before-and-after study in experimental wet basins in the USA quantified the overall density of target sedge meadow species, in the vegetation that developed over 16 weeks after sowing. Herb abundance (2 studies): Two replicated, randomized, paired, controlled, before-and-after studies in a floodplain marsh in Australia found that plots sown with herb seeds had similar overall sedge/grass cover to unsown plots, after 1–3 years. Individual species abundance (8 studies): Eight studies quantified the effect of this action on the abundance of individual plant species. For example, four replicated, before-and-after studies in Australia and the USA reported that sown herb species were absent from plots in some cases, after 1–3 years. The two studies in Australia reported low abundance (<20% frequency and <2% cover) of wick grass Hymenachne acutigluma 1–3 years after sowing its seeds – although in one of the studies this was greater than in unsown plots. VEGETATION STRUCTURE Height (1 study): One replicated study in the USA reported data on cordgrass height, for up to three growing seasons after sowing. OTHER Germination/emergence (4 studies): Two replicated studies in the USA reported ≤1–61% germination of grass-like plants and forbs, after their seeds were sown onto wetlands. Another replicated study in the USA reported that seeds of six wetland herb species did not germinate when sown into a floodplain where an invasive plant was present (but being controlled). One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in a floodplain marsh in Australia found that sowing herb seeds had no significant effect on the number of invasive mimosa Mimosa pigra seedlings germinating, for up to three years. Survival (6 studies): Six studies in freshwater wetlands in Australia and the USA reported absence of sown (or planted) herb species, in at least some cases, after one month to seven years. It is not always clear whether this reflects death of seedlings or failure of seeds to germinate. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3264https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3264Sat, 10 Apr 2021 15:34:48 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Sow grass seeds Thirteen studies examined the effects of sowing grass seeds on grassland vegetation. Six studies were in North America, five studies were in Europe and one study was in each of Canada and South Africa. VEGETATION COMMUNITY (6 STUDIES) Community composition (2 studies): One of two paired studies (one of which was replicated, randomized and controlled) in Hungary and the UK found that, over time, plant communities in areas where grass seeds were sown and in areas where no seeds were sown became more similar to those of intact grasslands. The other study found that plant communities in sown areas were different from those of ancient grasslands or sites where natural regeneration was allowed. Overall richness/diversity (4 studies): Three of four studies (three of which were replicated and controlled, and one of which was a site comparison) in the UK, Hungary, Iceland and the USA found that sowing grass seeds did not change or reduced overall plant species richness. The other study found that species richness was lower than that found in nearby intact prairies. Native/non-target species richness/diversity (1 study): One replicated, controlled study in the USA found that sowing grass seeds did not alter the species richness of native plants. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE (10 STUDIES) Overall abundance (3 studies): Two of three studies (including two replicated, controlled studies and one site comparison) in the USA, Iceland and Norway found that sowing grass seeds increased vegetation cover. The other study found that in two of three years there was no difference in vegetation cover between areas where grass seeds were sown and those where no seeds were sown. Characteristic plant abundance (1 study): One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in Hungary found that sowing grass seeds reduced the abundance of grassland species. Sown/planted species abundance (1 study): One replicated, controlled study in South Africa found that sowing grass seeds increased the abundance of sown species. Grass abundance (4 studies): Three of four replicated studies (two of which were randomized, controlled studies and the other a site comparison) in the USA and Canada found that sowing grass seeds either reduced native grass cover or did not alter native grass density. The other study found that after two years grass cover was higher in areas where grass seeds were sown than in areas were no seeds were sown, but after seven years there was no longer a difference between areas. Forb abundance (2 studies): One of two replicated studies (one randomized, controlled study and one site comparison) in the USA and Canada found that sowing grass seeds reduced the abundance of native forb species. The other study found no change in the density of native forb species. Tree/shrub abundance (2 studies): Two replicated studies (one randomized, controlled study and one site comparison) in the USA and Canada found that sowing grass seeds reduced the abundance of shrub species. Native/non-target species abundance (1 study): One replicated, controlled study in the USA found that sowing grass seeds did not alter the cover of native plant species. VEGETATION STRUCTURE (0 STUDIES)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3397https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3397Fri, 25 Jun 2021 13:05:51 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Restore former mining or energy production sites Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of restoring former mining or energy production sites on reptile populations. Nine studies were in Australia, two were in the USA, one was in Spain and one was on Reunion Island. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (8 STUDIES) Community composition (4 studies): Two of four site comparison studies (including two replicated studies) in Austalia and Spain found that restored mining areas hosted different reptile communities than unmined areas. One study found that reptile communities in the oldest restored areas were most similar to unmined areas. The other study found that restored mining areas that were seeded or received topsoil had similar community composition compared to surrounding unmined forests. Richness/diversity (5 studies): Two replicated, site comparison studies and one review in Australia found that restored mining sites had lower reptile species richness than unmined sites. One replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in Spain found that after restoration, reptile species richness increased steadily over a six-year period. One replicated, site comparison study in Australia found that restored areas supported most of typical reptile species found in the wider habitat. POPULATION RESPONSE (8 STUDIES) Abundance (7 studies): Five of six replicated, site comparison studies and one review in Australia found that in restored mining areas reptiles tended to be less abundant than in unmined areas. The other study found mixed effects of restoration on reptile abundance. One replicated, controlled study in Australia found that restored areas that were thinned and burned 10–18 years after restoration began had higher reptile abundance than restored areas that were not thinned and burned. Reproductive success (2 studies): One review in Australia found that one study reported reptiles breeding in restored mining areas. One study on Reunion Island found that four of 34 and eight of 40 artificial egg laying sites in restored mining areas were used by Reunion day geckos nine months and two years after installation respectively. Condition (1 study): One review of restoration of mining sites in Australia found that three of three studies indicated that reptile size or condition was similar in restored mines and undisturbed areas. BEHAVIOUR (5 STUDIES) Use (4 studies): Three studies (including one replicated, site comparison study) in Australia and the USA found that restored mining areas were occupied by up to 14 snake, five turtle and one lizard species, or that generalist reptile species colonized restoration sites more quickly than did specialist species. One replicated, controlled study in Australia found that Napoleon’s skinks reintroduced to a restored mining site all moved to an unmined forest within one week of release. Behaviour change (1 studies): One review of restoration of mining sites in Australia reported that one of one studies indicated that there were changes in behaviour of lizards between restored mines and undisturbed areas. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3497https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3497Mon, 06 Dec 2021 12:43:42 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Install exclusion devices on fishing gear: Tortoises, terrapins, side-necked & softshell turtles Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of installing exclusion devices on fishing gear on tortoise, terrapin, side-necked & softshell turtle populations. Ten studies were in the USA, two were in Canada and one was in Australia. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (1 STUDY) Survival (1 study): One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in the USA found that fewer turtles died in hoop nets with an exclusion device than in unmodified traps. BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY) Use (1 study): One randomized, controlled trial in the USA found mixed effects of crab pot exclusion devices on use of pots by diamondback terrapins depending on the device design. OTHER (13 STUDIES) Unwanted catch (13 studies): Eight of 13 controlled studies (including seven replicated, paired studies) in the USA, Australia and Canada found that crab pots, fyke nets, hoop nets and eel traps with exclusion devices caught fewer turtles, diamond back terrapins and short-necked turtles than unmodified gear. Two studies also found that modified gear caught smaller short-necked turtles and diamondback terrapins than unmodified gear. Three studies found mixed effects of exclusion devices on unwanted catch of turtles and diamondback terrapins depending on the device design. The other two studies found that that crab pots with wire exclusion devices or magnetized exclusion devices caught a similar number of diamondback terrapins compared to unmodified pots. One study also found that crab pots with wire exclusion devices caught larger diamondback terrapins than pots with plastic exclusion devices. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3590https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3590Wed, 08 Dec 2021 16:11:04 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Breed reptiles in captivity: Snakes – Vipers Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of breeding vipers in captivity. Nine studies were in the USA, three were in unknown locations and one was in Columbia. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (13 STUDIES) Reproductive success (13 studies): Thirteen studies in the USA, Columbia and unknown locations reported that 1–4 female vipers, including three captive-bred offsping, produced litters of 1–18 live young or clutches of 1–26 eggs with hatching success of 63–81%. One study also reported that none of three Chocoan bushmaster eggs that were removed and incubated artificially fully developed. Survival (5 studies): Three studies in the USA and one in an unknown location reported that of 10–49 captive-bred young snakes, 1–9 died soon after birth or within three months. One study also reported that one pair of adult adders died shortly after arriving in captivity. One study in an unknown location reported that four captive-bred Radde’s vipers survived for at least eight months Condition (1 study): One study in an unknown location reported that two of 10 captive-bred Nikolsky's adders had some physical deformities. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES) OTHER (2 STUDIES) Offspring sex ratio (2 studies): Two studies in the USA and an unknown location reported that the sex ratio of captive-bred lower California rattlesnakes was 2:12 and Russell's vipers was 8:6 females to males. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3753https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3753Tue, 14 Dec 2021 13:32:11 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Relocate nests/eggs to a nearby natural setting (not including hatcheries): Sea turtles Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of relocating nests/eggs to a nearby natural setting on sea turtle populations. Five studies were in the USA, two were in Suriname and the US Virgin Islands and one was in each of Costa Rica, Ascension Island, Brazil and Cape Verde. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (12 STUDIES) Reproductive success (12 studies): Four of 12 controlled studies (including three replicated, randomized studies) in the USA, Suriname, US Virgin Islands, Costa Rica, Ascension Island, Brazil and Cape Verde found that relocated sea turtle nests had lower hatching success than natural nests in six of seven years, in 26 of 29 years, or lower hatching success than nests laid above the tidal zone, or that nests relocated >10 days after being laid had lower hatching and emergence success than natural nests or nests relocated within 12 hours. One of those studies also found that relocating nests within 12 hours had mixed effects on hatching and emergence success compared to natural nests. One study also found that two different egg collecting methods resulted in either more dead early stage or late-stage embryos. Four of the studies found that relocated sea turtle nests had similar hatching and emergence success or hatching success compared to natural nests and specifically compared to those laid in safer parts of the beach or above the high tide line. One of those studies also found that relocated nests experienced similar levels of predation by ghost crabs as natural nests. One of the studies also found that fewer relocated nests failed completely due to tidal flooding compared to natural nests. One of the studies found that relocated loggerhead turtle nests had higher hatching success than natural nests. One of the studies found that relocated leatherback turtle nests had higher hatching success compared to natural nests that were washed over by sea swells, but similar hatching success compared to natural nests that were not washed over by sea swells. The other two studies found that relocating sea turtle nests had mixed effects on hatching or hatching and emergence success compared to natural nests. One of those studies also found that in years when leatherback turtle nests were relocated, fewer were lost to erosion than when no relocations took place. Condition (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled study in the USA found that hatchlings from relocated loggerhead turtle nests were a similar size to hatchlings from natural nests. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES) OTHER (1 STUDY) Offspring sex ratio (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled study in Suriname found that relocated leatherback turtle nests produced all female hatchlings, whereas 30–100% of hatchlings from naturally incubated nests were female. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3781https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3781Wed, 15 Dec 2021 14:46:00 +0000Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance in grasslands or other open habitats Thirteen studies evaluated the effects on butterflies and moths of using prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance in grasslands or other open habitats. Eight studies were in the USA, three were in the UK, one was in South Africa and one was a review across Europe. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (3 STUDIES) Community composition (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA found that pastures managed by patch-burning had a similar butterfly community to rotationally or continuously grazed pastures. Richness/diversity (3 studies): Two replicated, before-and-after studies (including one randomized, controlled study and one paired sites, site comparison study) in the USA found that shrubland plots and grass field margins managed by burning had a similar species richness of butterflies to those which were unburned. One replicated, site comparison study in the USA reported that pastures managed by patch-burning had a lower species richness of butterflies than rotationally grazed pastures, a similar richness to rotationally grazed and mown pastures, and a higher species richness than continuously grazed pastures. POPULATION RESPONSE (12 STUDIES) Abundance (12 studies): Four of nine studies (including six replicated studies, two randomized studies, two paired sites studies, three controlled studies, two before-and-after studies, and five site comparison studies) in the UK, South Africa and the USA found that the abundance of heath fritillary adults, marsh fritillary caterpillar webs and Fender’s blue caterpillars and eggs was higher (sometimes after initial reductions in abundance) on heathland, fen meadows and prairies one or more years after management by burning than before burning, or compared to unburned or grazed land, although the total population of Fender’s blue declined in adjacent burned and unburned areas. Three studies found that the abundance of Brenton blue butterfly eggs and adults, rosy marsh moth caterpillars and regal fritillary adults was lower on a bog and prairies managed by burning than on unburned land, at least one and five years after burning. One study found that grass field margins managed by burning had a similar abundance of butterflies to unburned field margins. The seventh study found that abundance of Powershiek skipperling to burning, along with haying and idling, depended on the site’s vegetation characteristics. Two replicated, site comparison studies in the USA found that two prairie specialists (regal fritillary and arogos skipper) and three out of nine butterfly species were less abundant in prairies or pastures managed by burning than in prairies managed by haying or grazed pastures. These studies also found that the abundance of generalist and migrant species, and of purplish copper, was higher in burned prairies or pastures than hayed prairies or grazed pastures. One review across Europe reported that occasional burning on grassland benefitted 10 out of 67 butterfly species of conservation concern. Survival (1 study): One replicated, paired sites, controlled study in the USA found that in prairie plots burned one year before, Fender’s blue butterfly caterpillars had lower survival than in unburned plots. BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY) Use (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the UK found that a similar proportion of fen meadows were occupied by marsh fritillary caterpillars whether they were managed by burning, grazing or were unmanaged. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3882https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3882Mon, 25 Jul 2022 12:37:11 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Convert to organic farming Thirteen studies evaluated the effects on butterflies and moths of converting to organic farming. Six studies were in Sweden, three were in the UK and one was in each of Canada, Switzerland, Germany and Taiwan. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (13 STUDIES) Richness/diversity (13 studies): Seven of 11 replicated, site comparison studies (including five paired studies) in Sweden, the UK, Canada, Switzerland, Germany and Taiwan found that organic arable farms had a greater species richness of butterflies, burnet moths and all moths than conventionally managed farms. However, three of these studies only found this in intensively managed not in more diverse landscapes,only in the first of three study years, and in farms managed organically for <6 years but not 15–23 years. Four of the studies found that organic arable and mixed farms had a similar species richness of macro-moths and butterflies to conventionally managed farms. Two of these studies also found that on organic and conventionally managed farms within a landscape with a high proportion of organic farms there was higher species richness of butterflies and burnet moths than either type of farm in a landscape with a high proportion of conventional farms. One before-and-after study in the UK found that within 4 years after a mixed farm converted to organic management (along with increasing the proportion of grassland and reducing grazing intensity) the species richness of large moths increased. One replicated, site comparison study in Sweden found that organic mixed farms had a more consistent species richness of butterflies across the farm, but a similar consistency through the summer and between years, compared to conventional farms. POPULATION RESPONSE (12 STUDIES) Abundance (12 studies): Seven of 11 replicated, site comparison studies (including five paired studies) in Sweden, the UK, Canada, Switzerland, Germany and Taiwan found that organic arable farms had a greater abundance of butterflies, burnet moths, and all moths, than conventionally managed farms, and that butterfly abundance increased with time since farms had been converted to organic management. However, three of these studies only found this in intensively managed not in more diverse landscapes, and in farms managed organically for <6 years but not 15–23 years. One of these studies also found that on organic and conventionally managed farms within a landscape with a high proportion of organic farms there was higher abundance of butterflies than either type of farm in a landscape with a high proportion of conventional farms. The other four found that organic arable and mixed farms had a similar abundance of macro-moths and butterflies to conventionally managed farms. One before-and-after study in the UK found that within 4 years after a mixed farm converted to organic management (along with increasing the proportion of grassland and reducing grazing intensity) the total abundance of large moths, and the abundance of lunar underwing moths and 5 out of 23 butterfly species, increased, but the abundance of two butterfly species decreased. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3907https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3907Tue, 09 Aug 2022 18:07:43 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Release captive-bred individuals to the wild Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of releasing captive-bred butterflies and moths into the wild. Nine studies were in the UK and one was in each of the UK and Ireland, the UK and the Netherlands, the USA and Poland and Slovakia. COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES) POPULATION RESPONSE (12 STUDIES) Abundance (10 studies): Six studies (including one before-and-after study) in the UK, the USA and Poland and Slovakia reported that captive-bred butterfly populations released as eggs, caterpillars, pupae and adults (sometimes into managed habitat or alongside translocated individuals) persisted for 2–28 years and increased in abundance (sometimes with continued captive-rearing of wild-laid caterpillars or supplemented by further releases). Two studies (including one review) in the UK reported that captive-bred large copper and belted beauty moth populations released as caterpillars (sometimes into managed habitat) died out one, two or 12 years after release, or required further releases to survive. One replicated study in the UK reported that three of 10 captive-bred barberry carpet moth populations released as caterpillars (and in one case as adults) established, and at least one persisted for five years. One review across the UK and Ireland found that 25% of captive-bred and translocated butterfly populations survived for >3 years, but 38% died out in that time, and only 8% were known to have survived for >10 years. Reproductive success (2 studies): One study in the UK reported that after the release of a captive-bred population of large copper, the number of eggs laid/female increased over the first three years. One before-and-after study in the UK reported captive-bred adult pearl-bordered fritillaries released into coppiced woodland successfully bred at least once. Survival (3 studies): Three studies (including two replicated, site comparison studies and one review) in the UK and the UK and the Netherlands found that released, captive-bred large copper caterpillars had a lower survival rate than captive, wild or translocated caterpillars. BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3914https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Factions%2F3914Wed, 10 Aug 2022 15:06:58 +0100